Religion

From Warringstates

During this period of time, Buddhism had not yet emerged, so the main school of thought was Confucianism. Daoism (Taoism) was also around, but it wasn't an institutionalized religion until quite some centuries later.

Confucianism

The central position in Confucian thought regarding filial piety--the unquestionable devotion and respect that children owe their parents--is reflected in Chinese burial arts and ancestor veneration. In his teachings, Confucius articulated a moral philosophy that had great influence during his lifetime and long after his death. He believed that the recognition of traditional roles and social hierarchies was the foundation of a healthy and just social order. Confucius believed that if all individuals took responsibility for their positions in society and acted in accordance with their assigned places, peace and goodness were sure to reign.

Confucius envisioned a social hierarchy in which every member of society was positioned in relation to others, and each had responsibilities according to his or her place. The family structure and the relationships established within the family unit served as a model for the ideal government. From Confucius's point of view, the family was patrilineal--sons carried on the name of the father--and patriarchal--fathers were the ultimate authority within the family. In Confucius's view, children owed their parents respect and loyalty, but parents also had responsibilities toward their children. In the same way, a ruler had responsibilities towards his subjects and the subjects must in turn yield to the ruler's authority.

For Confucius, the moral improvement of the individual was central to social harmony. Benevolent actions towards other humans were thought to be extremely important in maintaining a moral society. Confucius referred to this virtuous behavior as ren (human-heartedness). He believed that people, no matter what their position in the social hierarchy, should treat others humanely and should respect the needs and interests of others.

Al thought Confucius was largely concerned with the concrete world in which humans live rather than the abstract realm of spirits and gods, he also upheld the importance of ritual and ceremony. He thought ritual and ceremony were important tools for reinforcing the structure of society and maintaining an ideal social order. Confucius's ideas were further developed in the work of his followers, among them the famous political thinker named Mencius.

Daoism

Like Confucianism, Daoism is a complex philosophy that initially emerged in the Zhou period. Also like Confucianism, Daoism became increasingly nuanced over time as it incorporated new ideas. In the visual arts, imagery relating to both Confucianism and Daoism appears in subtle forms.

In essence, Confucianism and Daoism and often conceived of as opposing systems of thought. Whereas Confucian thinkers focused on the world of human interaction and encouraged each individual to strive for moral correctness, Daoism stressed the importance to yielding to the harmony of the natural world. Confucius and his followers argued in favor of the acknowledgment of a social hierarchy. They believed that individuals should seek to uphold this hierarchy through their actions, and by extension, they believed that in order to attain harmony in society, all individuals must make a disciplined effort to always be virtuous in their interactions with others. However, Daoist thought stressed submission not to the structures of society or to others, but to a universal path or principle. This universal path, the path followed in nature, is called Dao.

Confucian thinkers proposed that a healthy government was a positive force in society, and by promoting moral behavior, the state could benefit its people. In contrast, Daoism encouraged its followers to be guided by their own natural instincts, essentially withdrawing from public life. Some followers of Daoism lived their lives in seclusion, focusing on the contemplation of nature. Just as water instinctively follows the path of least resistance and seemingly without effort wears away stone, Daosim similarly emphasized passive acceptance of the natural course of things.

For followers of Confucius, the pursuit of scholarship and engagement with others formed the path to moral enlightenment. In contrast, Daoists believed that one could only find peace and harmony in live through the acceptance of the path of nature. A key source of rour understanding of Daoist principles is an early text attributed to the writer known as Lao Tzu. In this text, Lao Tzu explains that scholarly engagement can only lead to strife:

Do not honor the worthy,
And the people will not compete.
Do not value rare treasures,
And the people will not steal.
Do not display what others want,
And the people will not have their hearts confused...
Keep the people always without knowledge and without desires.

For then the clever will not dare act.
Engage in no action and order will prevail.

Although Confucianism and Daoism seem to represent opposing principles, it is important to note that the two were not entirely antithetical to one another. For example, although Confucianism was supported by the state during the Han period, Daoism was also part of the culture at court.

In addition to this philosophical emphasis on the universal path as the road to enlightenment, a religious branch of Daoism also developed. Religious Daoism incorporated popular beliefs about the spirit world and the cosmos as well as cults dedicated to the pursuit of immortality. As a religious institution, Daoism ultimately adapted some aspects of Buddhism, such as the central position of scripture and the importance of monastic life.