Islam

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Revision as of 16:21, 17 February 2007

Islam is a religion based on the teachings of Muhammad. Islamic people, known as Muslims, only believe in one God who they sometimes refer to as "Allah." Islam is the second largest religion in the world, practiced in the Middle East, North Africa, and South and Central Asia. It is also the fastest growing religion in the world.

Beliefs

Muslims believe that God revealed his final message to humanity through Muhammad ibn Abdullah (c. 570 - July 6, 632) via the angel Gabriel. Muhammad is considered to have been God's final prophet, the "Seal of the Prophets". The revelations Muhammad preached form the holy book of Islam, the Qur'an. The Qur'an is believed to be the flawless final revelation of God to humanity, valid until the day of the Resurrection.

Muslims hold that the message of Islam - submission to the will of the one God - is the same as the message preached by all the messengers sent by God to humanity since Adam. From an Islamic point of view, Islam is the oldest of the monotheistic religions because it represents both the original and the final revelation of God to Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and Muhammad.<ref>Esposito (2002b), pp.4-5 Template:Quran-usc Members of all sects of Islam believe that the Qur'an codifies the direct words of God.

Islamic texts depict Judaism and Christianity as prophetic successor traditions to the teachings of Abraham. The Qur'an calls Jews and Christians "People of the Book," and distinguishes them from polytheists. In order to reconcile discrepancies between the earlier prophets and the Qur'an, Muslims claim that Jews and Christians forgot or distorted the word of God after it was revealed to them. The majority of early Muslim scholars, and some modern ones, believe it was just distortion in interpretation of the Bible. However, others believe that there was also textual distortion, that Jews changed the Tawrat (Torah), and Christians the Injil (Gospels) by altering the meaning, form and placement of words in their respective holy texts."EoQ-Polemics" "Qur'an and Polemics", Encyclopedia of the Qur'an (2005)</ref><ref> Accad (2003)

God

The fundamental concept in Islam is the Oneness of God or tawhīd: monotheism which is absolute, not relative or pluralistic. The Oneness of God is the first of Islam's five pillars, expressed by the Shahadah (testification). By declaring the Shahadah, a Muslim attests to the belief that there are no gods but God, and that Muhammad is God's messenger.

In Arabic, God is called Allāh. The word is etymologically connected to ʾilāh "deity".<ref>The name "Allah" is a singular neuter noun.</ref> Muslims consider Allāh to be the same deity as that worshipped by Christians and Jews, the God of Abraham. Allāh is also used by Arab speaking Christian and Jewish people to refer to God as they worship him. The usage of the definite article in Allah linguistically indicates the divine unity. Muslims reject the Christian doctrine concerning the trinity of God, seeing it as akin to polytheism.

God is described in a sura of the Qu'ran as: "...God, the One and Only; God, the Eternal, Absolute; He begetteth not, nor is He begotten; And there is none like unto Him."<ref>Qur'an Template:Quran-usc-range</ref>

No Islamic visual images or depictions of God are meant to exist because such artistic depictions may lead to idolatry. Moreover, Muslims believe that God is incorporeal, making any two- or three- dimensional depictions impossible. Such aniconism can also be found in Jewish and some Christian theology. Instead, Muslims describe God by the names and attributes that he revealed to his creation. All but one sura of the Qur'an begins with the phrase "In the name of God, the Beneficent, the Merciful".

Qur'an

The Qur'an is generally considered by Muslims to be the literal, undistorted word of God, and is the central religious text of Islam. It has also been called, in English, the Koran and, archaically, the Alcoran. The word Qur'an means “recitation”. Although the Qur'an is referred to as a "book", when Muslims refer in the abstract to "the Qur'an", they are usually referring to the scripture as recited in Arabic - the words themselves - rather than to the printed work or any translation of it.

Muslims believe that the verses of the Qur'an were revealed to Muhammad by God through the Angel Gabriel on numerous occasions between the years 610 and his death on July 6 632. W. Montgomery Watt believes that Muhammad must have been sincere in his claims "for this alone makes credible the development of a great religion",<ref name="Cambridge31">The Cambridge History of Islam (1977), p.31</ref> and Annemarie Schimmel states that the most recent studies of Muhammad indicate that Muhammad devoutly believed that he was God's instrument.<ref>Schimmel (1995) p.51-2</ref> Modern Western academics generally hold that the Qur'an of today is not very different from the words Muhammad claimed to have been revealed to him as the search for other variants has not yielded any differences of great significance. In fact, the source of ambiguity in the quest for historical Muhammad is more the lack of knowledge about pre-Islamic Arabia.<ref>Peters (1991): "Few have failed to be convinced that what is in our copy of the Quran is, in fact, what Muhammad taught, and is expressed in his own words... To sum this up: the Quran is convincingly the words of Muhammad, perhaps even dictated by him after their recitation."</ref> There is however a considerable debate in academia over the real chronology of the chapters of the Qur'an.<ref name="Carole Hillenbrand">Carole Hillenbrand in Fouracre (2006), p.329</ref>

To interpret the Qu'ran, Muslims use a form of exegesis known as tafsir.

Most Muslims regard paper copies of the Qur'an with veneration, washing as for prayers before reading the Qur'an. Worn out Qur'ans are not discarded as wastepaper, but are typically sunk in the sea. Many Muslims memorize at least some portion of the Qur'an in the original Arabic, usually at least the verses needed to recite prayers. Those who have memorized the entire Qur'an are known as a hafiz. Muslims believe that the Qur'an is perfect only as revealed in the original Arabic. Translations, they maintain, are the result of human effort, and are deficient because of differences in human languages, because of the human fallibility of translators, and (not least) because any translation lacks the inspired content found in the original. Translations are therefore regarded only as commentaries on the Qur'an, or "interpretations of its meaning", not as the Qur'an itself. Almost all modern, printed versions of the Qur'an are parallel text ones, with a vernacular translation facing the original Arabic text.

Muhammad

Muhammad (570-632), also Mohammed, Mohamet, and other variants<ref>Mahound is a term used that was used in medieval and early modern Europe to vilify Muhammad. It appears to carry the meaning 'devil' or 'spirit of darkness'. See Watt (1974), p.231.</ref><ref>Welch, noting the frequency of Muhammad being called as "Al-Amin", a common Arab name, suggests the possibility of "Al-Amin" being Muhammad's given name as it is a masculine form from the same root as his mother's name, A'mina. cf. "Muhammad", Encyclopaedia of Islam Online; The sources frequently say that he, in his youth, was called with the nickname "Al-Amin" meaning "faithful, trustworthy" cf. Carl W. Ernst (2004), p.85.</ref> was an Arab religious and political leader who came to spread the message of Islam. He is venerated and honoured as the greatest prophet of God and as the final messenger sent with revelation to humankind. Muslims do not regard him as the founder of a new religion, but rather believe him to be the last in a line of prophets of God and regard his mission as one of restoring the original monotheistic faith of Adam, Abraham and other prophets of Islam that had become corrupted or been misinterpreted.<ref>Esposito (1998), p.12 - Esposito (2002b), pp.4-5 - Peters (2003), p.9</ref><ref name = "EoI-Muhammad"/>

For the last 23 years of his life, beginning at age 40, Muhammad reported receiving revelations from God. The content of these revelations, known as the Qur'an, was memorized and recorded by his followers.<ref>The term Qur'an was invented and first used in the Qur'an itself. There are two different theories about this term and its formation, that are discussed in Quran#Etymology cf. "Qu'ran", Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.</ref> These memories and recordings were then compiled into a single volume shortly after his death.

Muslims generally believe that Muhammad transmitted the revelations he received perfectly, as attested to by this verse of the Qur'an:

"And if the apostle were to invent any sayings in Our name, We should certainly seize him by his right hand, And We should certainly then cut off the artery of his heart: Nor could any of you withhold him (from Our wrath)." Qur'an Template:Quran-usc-range

However, Muslim scholars disagree about whether or not Muhammad made mistakes and committed sins during his lifetime. The mainstream opinion held by Sunni theologians is that Muhammad (and indeed Prophets in general) did not commit major sins, which would imply moral defects, and which would result in a diminuation of his faith, but it is possibile that he committed minor sins or made mistakes in his day to day affairs.<ref>al-Juwayni (2001), p.193</ref> In contrast to this, Shi'a theolgians believe that all Prophets were immune from both major and minor sins, and that they were also endowed with complete knowledge and therefore they were protected from making mistakes as well.<ref>Abu Jafar Muhammad (1982), p.87</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> A similar doctrine of infallibility exists amongst certain groups of Sunnis, but some scholars have theorized that this concept originated with the Shi'a, specifically in connection with the Imamate, and was later transmitted to the Sunnis via Sufi and Mu'tazilite thought.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Sunnah

Sunnah literally means “trodden path” and it refers, in common usage, to the normative example of Muhammad, as recorded in traditions known as hadith about his speech, his actions, his acquiescence to the words and actions of others, and his personal characteristics.<ref>Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World (2003), p.666</ref> According to some opinions of Islamic scholars, the sunnah is the tradition of Abraham’s religion which Muhammad revived and reformed, after making certain additions.<ref>Template:Quran</ref><ref>Ghamidi (2001): Sources of Islam</ref>

The emulation of Muhammad's example and authentic hadith reports originating from the Companions of Muhammad started from the ninth century. Earlier sources, however, reflect a more flexible use of the term. Shortly after Muhammad's death, actions of the Rightly Guided Caliphs were also considered to be sunnah. This concept continued in Shi'a Islam in which Shi'ite imams are also a source of sunnah. Malik ibn Anas, author of Al-Muwatta, the earliest extant manual of Islamic law, used sunnah but treated the existing practice of the Muslims of Medina as a more reliable source of that sunnah than hadith.<ref name="enc_sun">Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World (2003), p.667</ref>

During Muhammad ibn Idris ash-Shafi`i's time, these flexible concepts of Sunnah were challenged. Ash-Shafi`i challenged other groups in his times and insisted Sunnah can only be known from reliable hadith reports. He also championed the traditionalist argument that Sunnah is equivalent to revelation of God.<ref name="enc_sun"/> From the tenth century onward, the canonical collections of hadith, especially the collections of Bukhari and Muslim, became virtually synonymous with Sunnah, exerting a profound and pervasive impact on Islamic culture<ref name="sun2">Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World (2003), p.668</ref> Shatibi writes that Sunnah is either explanation of the Qur'an or addition to the Qur'an. If it is an explanation, then its status is secondary otherwise, it will only be considered addition if it is not discussed by the Qur'an.<ref>Imam Shatibi, Al-Muwafiqaat fi Usool al-Sharia, 5(4)</ref><ref>Ghamidi, Burhan, Al-Mawrid, pp. 41</ref>

Sunnah is the biggest point of contention among contemporary Muslims. A small group of Qur'an only Muslims reject Sunnah altogether, while almost all Muslims including revivalists like Mawdudi differentiate between Muhammad's action as a prophet and as a normal human.<ref name="sun2"/>

Hadith

Hadith are traditions relating to the words and deeds of Muhammad. Hadith collections are regarded as important tools for determining the Sunnah, or Muslim way of life, by all traditional schools of jurisprudence. A hadith was originally an oral tradition relevant to the actions and customs of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Starting from the first Islamic civil war of the 7th century, those receiving the hadith began to question the sources of the saying.Template:Fact This resulted in a "chain of transmission", for example "A told me that B told him that Muhammad said". The hadith were eventually recorded in written form, with their chain of transmission recorded, and were collected into large collections mostly during the reign of Umar II during 8th century, something that solidified in the 9th century. These works are still today referred to in matters of Islamic law and history.

Western academics view the hadith collections with caution as historical sources. Bernard Lewis states that "the collection and scrutiny of Hadiths didn't take place until several generations" after Muhammad's death and that "during that period the opportunities and motives for falsification were almost unlimited."<ref>Lewis (1993), pp.33-34</ref> In addition to the problem of oral transmission for over a hundred years, there existed motives for deliberate distortion. Early Muslim scholars were also concerned that hadiths may have been fabricated, and thus developed a whole science of criticism to distinguish between genuine sayings and those that were errors or frauds. Modern historians point out that a chain of authorities may be easily forged and that rejection of some relators implies the victory of one thought over the others.<ref>Peters (1991), pp.291-315</ref>

Hadith is considered an authoritative source of revelation, second only to the Qur'an.<ref>Esposito (2003), p.101</ref> In Islamic jurisprudence, the Qur'an contains many rules for the behavior expected of Muslims. However, there are many matters of concern, both religious and practical, on which there are no specific Qur'anic rules. Muslims believe that they can look at the example of Muhammad and his companions to discover what to imitate and what to avoid. Muslim scholars also find it useful to know how Muhammad or his companions explained the revelations, or upon what occasion Muhammad received them. Sometimes this will clarify a passage that otherwise seems obscure. Hadith are a source for Islamic history and biography. For the vast majority of devout Muslims, authentic hadith are also a source of religious inspiration.

Afterlife

A fundamental tenet of Islam is belief in the day of resurrection, Qiyamah. The trials and tribulations of Qiyamah are explained in both the Qur'an and the Hadith, as well as in the commentaries of Islamic scholars such as al-Ghazali, Ibn Kathir, and Muhammad al-Bukhari.

Muslims believe that God will hold every human, Muslim and non-Muslim, accountable for his or her deeds at a preordained time unknown to man.<ref>Template:Quran-usc</ref> The archangel Israfil, will sound a horn sending out a "blast of truth". Traditions say Muhammad will be the first to be brought back to life.<ref>Esposito (2003), p.264</ref>

Bodily resurrection is much insisted upon in the Qur'an, which challenges the Pre-Islamic Arabian concept of death.<ref>"Resurrection", The New Encyclopedia of Islam (2003), p.383</ref> Resurrection is followed by judgement of all souls. According to the Qur'an, sins that can consign someone to hell include lying, dishonesty, corruption, ignoring God or God's revelations, denying the resurrection, refusing to feed the poor, indulgence in opulence and ostentation, the economic exploitation of others, and social oppression.<ref name="enc_m">Encyclopedia of Islam and Muslim World (2004), p.565</ref>

The punishments in hell includes adhab, "pain or torment inflicted by way of chastiment; punishment", a very painful punishment (see Template:Quran-usc, Template:Quran-usc); khizy, "shame, disgrace, ignominy" (Template:Quran-usc, Template:Quran-usc).<ref name="WimEoQ">"Reward and Punishment", Encyclopedia of the Qur'an (2005)</ref> The descriptions in the Qur'an of hell are very descriptive (see Template:Quran-usc, Template:Quran-usc etc).

The punishment is in Qur'an contrasted not with release but with mercy (Template:Quran-usc, Template:Quran-usc, Template:Quran-usc, etc).<ref name="WimEoQ"/> Islam views paradise as a place of joy and bliss.<ref>"Paradise", "Heaven", The New Encyclopedia Britannica (2005)</ref> Islamic descriptions of heaven are described as physical pleasures, sometimes interpreted literally, sometimes allegorically. Heaven is most often described as a cool garden with running streams of unlimited food and drink. This influenced the design of Paradise Gardens. Some interpretations also promise enormous palaces staffed with multitudes of servants, and perfect, perpetually-virgin spouses. Despite the graphical descriptions of the physical pleasures, there are clear references to a greater joy that exceeds the pleasures of flesh: The acceptance from God, or good pleasure of God (ridwan) (see Template:Quran-usc).<ref>Smith (2006), p.89</ref> Islam also has a strong mystical tradition which places these heavenly delights in the context of the ecstatic awareness of God.<ref>"Heaven", The Columbia Encyclopedia (2000)</ref>

Salvation

According to all the traditional schools of jurisprudence, faith (Iman) ensures salvation. There are however differing views concerning the formal constituents of the act of faith. "For the Asharis it is centred on internal taṣdīḳ[internal judgment of veracity], for the Māturīdī-Ḥanafīs on the expressed profession of faith and the adherence of the heart, for the Muʿtazilīs on the performance of the 'prescribed duties', for the Ḥanbalīs and the Wahhābīs on the profession of faith and the performance of the basic duties."<ref name="EoI-Iman">"Imam", Encyclopaedia of Islam Online</ref> The common denominator of these various opinions is summed up in bearing witness that God is the Lord, L. Gardet states.<ref name="EoI-Iman"/>

There are traditions in which Muhammad stated that "No one shall enter hell who has an atom of faith in his heart" or that "Hell will not welcome anyone who has in his heart an atom of faith" however these passages are interpreted in different ways. Those who consider performance as an integral part of faith such as Ḵh̲ārid̲j̲īs, consider anyone who does a grave sin to be out of faith, while the majority of Sunnis who view works as merely the perfecting the faith, hold that a believing sinner will be punished with a temporary stay in hell. Still there are disagreement over the possibility of a believing sinner being forgiven immediately (e.g As̲h̲ʿarīs) and in full rather than undergoing temporary punishment. (e.g. Māturīdīs)<ref name="EoI-Iman"/>

Some, but not all, Muslims also believe that those who have heard the messages of a prophet of God (Moses, Jesus or Muhammad) but have chosen not to follow will receive eternal damnation in hell.