Central America

From Roach Busters

Provincias Unidas del Centro de América United Provinces of the Center of America
Flag	Coat of arms
Motto "Dios, Unión y Libertad" (Spanish) "God, Union and Liberty"
Anthem La Granadera
Capital Largest city	San Salvador 13°40′N, 89°10′W Guatemala City
Official languages	Spanish
Demonym	Central American
Government  - President  - Vice-President  - President of the Congress	Federal republic Óscar Arias Rafael Espada Carlos Sosa Coello
State religion	Roman Catholic Church
Establishment  - Independence from Spain  - Independence from Mexico  - Current constitution adopted	September 15, 1821 July 1, 1823 April 24, 1974
Area  - Total  - Water (%)	423,016 km² 163,362 sq mi 2.52
Population  - 2008 estimate  - Density	37,689,696 89/km² 231/sq mi
GDP (PPP)  - Total  - Per capita	2007 estimate $523 billion $13,871
GDP (nominal)  - Total  - Per capita	2007 estimate $540 billion $14,324
Gini (2006)	51.8 (high)
HDI (2005)	0.836 (high)
Currency	Central American real (CAR)
Time zone - Summer (DST)	CST (UTC -6) not observed (UTC -6)
Internet TLD	.up
Calling code	+500

The United Provinces of the Center of America (Spanish: Provincias Unidas del Centro de América), commonly called Central America (Spanish: Centroamérica or América Central), is an upper-middle income nation in Central America. Bordering Mexico to the north, Belize to the northeast, and the Confederate States of Latin America to the south, it is one of the oldest republics in the Western Hemisphere. Formed by the union of Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua, the nation will celebrate its bicentennial in 2023.

A geographically and culturally diverse nation abundant in resources, flora, and fauna, the United Provinces of Central America enjoys some of the greatest biodiversity in the world - bringing it to the attention of not only scientists, but also tourists, who flock to the country by the millions every year, earning the country much revenue. Also of note is the country's extensive, sometimes tumultuous, geographic activity; volcanic eruptions and earthquakes occur from time to time, with varying severity, from minor tremors to cataclysmic disasters taking thousands of lives (notable examples being the 1931 and 1972 Managua earthquakes).

An intensely socially conservative nation, it is the only country in the world where abortion is illegal without exception - even when the mother's life is in danger. Divorce and homosexuality remain social taboos (the former is illegal), and the status of women leaves much to be desired. Though religious freedom is protected by law and the majority of Central Americans are tolerant of other faiths, the Roman Catholic Church remains the official religion and wields an inordinate level of influence.

Though much social, political, and economic progress has been made in the past few decades, especially since the early 1980s, corruption remains a cause of concern and income and land distribution is among the most inequal in the world.

Contents 1 History 1.1 Pre-colonial history 1.2 Colonization 1.3 Independence 1.4 Early republic 1.5 United States involvement (1909—1933) 1.6 The Somoza era 1.7 The 1950s: Central America on the upswing 1.8 1960s: The specter of Cuba 1.9 1970s: The crisis years 1.10 1980s—1990s: Renewal and recovery 1.11 2000—present: The second Arias administration 2 Economy 3 Politics 3.1 Political parties 3.2 The National Congress 3.2.1 Sessions 3.2.2 Powers and functions 3.2.3 Formulation of laws 3.2.4 Composition and election 3.3 The President 3.4 The Supreme Court of Justice 3.5 State governments 4 Subdivisions 4.1 Costa Rica 4.1.1 Alajuela 4.1.2 Cartago 4.1.3 Guanacaste 4.1.4 Heredia 4.1.5 Limón 4.1.6 Puntarenas 4.1.7 San José 4.2 El Salvador 4.2.1 Ahuachapán 4.2.2 Cabañas 4.2.3 Chalatenango 4.2.4 Cuscatlán 4.2.5 La Libertad 4.2.6 La Paz 4.2.7 La Unión 4.2.8 Morazán 4.2.9 San Miguel 4.2.10 San Salvador 4.2.11 San Vicente 4.2.12 Santa Ana 4.2.13 Sonsonate 4.2.14 Usulután 4.3 Guatemala 4.3.1 Alta Verapaz 4.3.2 Baja Verapaz 4.3.3 Chimaltenango 4.3.4 Chiquimula 4.3.5 El Petén 4.3.6 El Progreso 4.3.7 El Quiché 4.3.8 Escuintla 4.3.9 Guatemala 4.3.10 Huehuetenango 4.3.11 Izabal 4.3.12 Jalapa 4.3.13 Jutiapa 4.3.14 Quetzaltenango 4.3.15 Retalhuleu 4.3.16 Sacatepéquez 4.3.17 San Marcos 4.3.18 Santa Rosa 4.3.19 Sololá 4.3.20 Suchitepéquez 4.3.21 Totonicapán 4.3.22 Zacapa 4.4 Honduras 4.4.1 Atlántida 4.4.2 Choluteca 4.4.3 Colón 4.4.4 Comayagua 4.4.5 Copán 4.4.6 Cortés 4.4.7 El Paraíso 4.4.8 Francisco Morazán 4.4.9 Gracias a Dios 4.4.10 Intibucá 4.4.11 Islas de la Bahía 4.4.12 La Paz 4.4.13 Lempira 4.4.14 Ocotepeque 4.4.15 Olancho 4.4.16 Santa Bárbara 4.4.17 Valle 4.4.18 Yoro 4.5 Nicaragua 4.5.1 Boaco 4.5.2 Carazo 4.5.3 Chinandega 4.5.4 Chontales 4.5.5 Estelí 4.5.6 Granada 4.5.7 Jinotega 4.5.8 León 4.5.9 Madriz 4.5.10 Managua 4.5.11 Masaya 4.5.12 Matagalpa 4.5.13 Nueva Segovia 4.5.14 Rivas 4.5.15 Río San Juan 4.5.16 Zelaya 4.6 States 5 Demographics 5.1 Age structure 5.2 Sex ratio 5.3 Infant mortality rate 5.4 Life expectancy at birth 5.5 Total fertility rate 5.6 HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate 5.7 Nationality 5.8 Ethnic groups 5.9 Religions 5.10 Languages 5.11 Literacy rate 6 Culture 6.1 Public holidays

History

Pre-colonial history

In pre-Columbian times, most of modern Central America was part of the Mesoamerican civilization. The Native American societies of Mesoamerica occupied the land ranging from central Mexico in the north to Costa Rica in the south. Most notable among these were the Maya, who had built numerous cities throughout the region, and the Aztecs, who created a vast empire. The pre-Columbian cultures of Panama traded with both Mesoamerica and South America, and can be considered transitional between those two cultural areas.

Colonization

Following Christopher Columbus's discovery of the Americas for Spain, the Spanish sent numerous expeditions to the region, and they began their conquest of Maya lands in the 1520s. In 1540, Spain established the Captaincy General of Guatemala, which extended from southern Mexico to Costa Rica, and thus encompassed most of what is currently known as Central America, with the exception of British Honduras (present-day Belize). This lasted nearly three centuries, until a rebellion (which followed closely on the heels of the Mexican War of Independence) in 1821.

Independence

In 1821 a congress of Central American criollos declared their independence from Spain, effective on September 15 of that year. That date is still marked as the independence day by most Central American nations. The Spanish Captain General, Gabino Gaínza, sympathized with the rebels and it was decided that he should stay on as interim leader until a new government could be formed. Independence was short-lived, for the conservative leaders in Guatemala welcomed annexation by the Mexican Empire of Agustín de Iturbide on January 5, 1822. Central American liberals objected to this, but an army from Mexico under General Vicente Filisola occupied Guatemala City and quelled dissent.

When Mexico became a republic the following year, it acknowledged Central America's right to determine its own destiny. On July 1, 1823, the congress of Central America declared absolute independence from Spain, Mexico, and any other foreign nation, and a republican system of government was established.

Early republic

In 1823 the nation of Central America was formed. It was intended to be a federal republic modeled after the United States of America. The Central American nation consisted of the states of Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica.

Central American liberals had high hopes for the United Provinces, which they believed would evolve into a modern, democratic nation, enriched by trade crossing through it between the Atlantic and the Pacific oceans. These aspirations are reflected in the emblems of the federal republic: The flag shows a white band between two blue stripes, representing the land between two oceans. The coat of arms shows five mountains (one for each state) between two oceans, surmounted by a Phrygian cap, the emblem of the French Revolution.

In the late 1830s, the nation nearly dissolved as a result of civil war, which directly resulted from Honduras's attempt to secede on November 5, 1838. A brief but economically disastrous war followed, which ended in 1840 with Honduras's re-integration into the Union.

The remainder of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th were characterized by alternating periods of spectacular economic growth and economic malaise, and general peace but severe political instability; most governments were both notoriously corrupt and short-lived. Two parties — the Conservative Party and the Liberal Party — dominated the political arena. The difference between the two was negligible. Both were staunchly conservative with strong ties to the Roman Catholic Church, and both represented the tiny but extremely powerful oligarchy, which, while numerically small, controlled the vast majority of the country's wealth and owned most of the land. Patronage, nepotism, and political infighting were rife. In concert with developments in Europe, class consciousness and social tensions gradually began to build in Central America.

United States involvement (1909—1933)

The early 20th century was characterized by pervasive involvement in Central American politics by the United States. In 1909, the U.S. provided political support to conservative-led forces rebelling against then-President Zelaya. U.S. motives included differences over the proposed Central American Canal and Zelaya's attempts to regulate foreign access to Central American natural resources. On November 18, 1909, U.S. warships were sent to the area after 500 revolutionaries (including two Americans) were executed by order of Zelaya. The U.S. justified the intervention by claiming to protect U.S. lives and property. Zelaya resigned later that year.

In August 1912 the President of Central America, Manuel Estrada Cabrera (who had succeeded Zelaya), requested that the Secretary of War, General Luis Mena, resign for fear that he was leading an insurrection. Mena fled San Salvador with his brother, the Chief of Police of San Salvador, to start an insurrection. When the U.S. Legation asked President Estrada to ensure the safety of American citizens and property during the insurrection he replied that he could not and that "In consequence my Government desires that the Government of the United States guarantee with its forces security for the property of American Citizens in Central America and that it extend its protection to all the inhabitants of the Republic."

U.S. Marines occupied Central America from 1912 to 1933, except for a nine month period beginning in 1925. Estrada ruled the country until 1923. He brought stability to Central America, often at the price of dictatorial rule. He encouraged development of the nation's infrastructure of highways, railroads, and sea ports. The United Fruit Company became an important force in Central America during his presidency. Opposition to his regime slowly grew; by 1920, opposition was widespread. In 1923, he was removed from office by the army, which charged that he was "mentally incompetent." With Estrada's departure went the nation's political stability; between 1923 and 1937, the country had eight Presidents.

Following the evacuation of U.S. Marines, another violent conflict between Liberals and Conservatives took place in 1926, known as the Constitutionalist War, which resulted in a coalition government and the return of U.S. Marines.

From 1927 until 1933, Gen. Augusto C. Sandino led a sustained guerrilla war first against the Conservative regime and subsequently against the U.S. Marines, who withdrew upon the establishment of a new Liberal government. Sandino was the only Central American general to refuse to sign the el tratado del Espino Negro agreement and then headed up to the northern mountains of Las Segovias, where he fought the U.S. Marines for over five years. The revolt finally forced the United States to compromise and leave the country. When the Americans left in 1933, they set up the Guardia Nacional (National Guard), a combined military and police force trained and equipped by the Marines. Anastasio Somoza García was put in charge of the Guardia Nacional. He was one of the three rulers of the country, the others being Sandino and the mostly figurehead President Juan Bautista Sacasa.

After the U.S. Marines withdrew from Nicaragua in January 1933, Sandino and the newly-elected Sacasa government reached an agreement by which he would cease his guerrilla activities in return for amnesty, a grant of land for an agricultural colony, and retention of an armed band of 100 men for a year. But a growing hostility between Sandino and Somoza led Somoza to order the assassination of Sandino. Fearing future armed opposition from Sandino, Somoza invited him to a meeting in Managua, where Sandino was assassinated on February 21, 1934 by the Guardia Nacional.

The Somoza era

In 1936, Somoza orchestrated a bloodless coup d'état, deposing Sacasa. A series of hand-picked puppets ruled for the remainder of the year; in December, Somoza was elected in his own right, and assumed office on New Year's Day, 1937. Somoza suspended the constitution, centralized and concentrated considerable power into his own hands, doled out important positions in the government and military to close relatives and friends, and accumulated a considerable fortune, primarily through investments in agricultural exports, but also by granting generous concessions to foreign (primarily American) companies to exploit gold, rubber and timber, for which he received 'executive levies' and 'presidential commissions.'

While opposition parties continued to exist (at least on paper), real power rested firmly in the hands of the Somoza family, and the two main parties, the Nationalist Liberal Party (Somoza's party) and the Conservative Party, had virtually indistinguishable platforms. The presidency rotated between Somoza and hand-picked candidates, but regardless of who held the presidency, the Somozas always wielded power behind the scenes, with the backing of the National Guard.

On a positive note, the country enjoyed a great degree of political stability and peace, and much economic progress was made. However, rampant corruption and an increasingly wide gap between the elite and the rural poor alienated many from Somoza.

In the international arena, Somoza aligned his country closely with the United States. Central America became the first country in Latin America to join the United States in formal declaration of World War II, and it was also a major supplier of materials to the U.S. war effort. Central America was also one of the original signatories to the United Nations Charter (and the first nation in the world to ratify the UN charter). With the advent of the Cold War, Somoza, well-known as a staunch anticommunist, readily received U.S. support. Central America gained a reputation as one of the most outspokenly pro-Western and anticommunist countries in the Third World.

In 1948, in the aftermath of a highly disputed election (which, naturally, Somoza won), José Figueres Ferrer led an armed uprising against the government. With more than 2,000 dead, the resulting 44-day civil war was the bloodiest event in Central American history during the first half of the twentieth-century. Afterwards, the new, victorious government junta, led by the opposition, abolished the National Guard (replacing it with an apolitical, professional military), sent Somoza into exile (where he ended up settling in Miami, Florida), and oversaw the drafting of a new constitution by a democratically-elected assembly. Most significantly, the country's draconian ballot access laws were relaxed, effectively ending the two-party duopoly that had endured since the 19th century. Several new parties sprung into being as a result, including the social democratic National Liberation Party (Partido Liberación Nacional), founded by Figueres.

Having enacted these reforms, the regime finally relinquished its power on November 8, 1949 to the new democratic government. After the coup d'état, Figueres became a national hero, winning the country's first democratic election under the new constitution in 1953.

As for Somoza, his legacy remains a mixed one. His supporters characterize him as a "benevolent dictator," citing the progress Central America made on the economic front as well as the general stability that prevailed through his administration. However, his detractors are quick to point out that under Somoza, corruption reached endemic proportions, the country's illusory "democracy" was a façade, and dissent was not tolerated. Somoza himself was known as saying that he was personally in favor of democracy, but only when the country was "ready" for it. In a 1953 interview with the New York Times, he said, "I would like nothing better than to give [the Central Americans] the same kind of freedom as that of the United States...It is like what you do with a baby. First you give it milk by drops, then more and more, then a little piece of pig, and finally it can eat everything...You cannot give a bunch of five-year-olds guns...They will kill each other. You have to teach them how to use freedom, not to abuse it."

Somoza died of natural causes in Miami, Florida on September 29, 1956. He was 60 years old.

The 1950s: Central America on the upswing

The government of José Figueres Ferrer was the most progressive one Central America ever had. Women's suffrage was granted; the banking, telecommunications, and utilities sectors were nationalized; resources earmarked for education increased 250% between 1953 and 1958; a generous social security system and labor code were introduced; and ambitious public works programs were launched. Central America pursued a pragmatic, middle-of-the-road economic policy, combining a business-friendly environment with a progressive welfare state, in an effort to counterbalance both reactionary oligarchs and an increasingly militant left-wing grassroots movement. Figueres maintained the pro-American foreign policy initiated by his predecessors.

Figueres was immensely popular both at home and abroad for his reformism, pragmatism, and strenuous opposition to extremism on both ends of the political spectrum. While he came nowhere close to fulfilling all his goals (especially in the area of land reform), he left office with very high approval ratings.

1960s: The specter of Cuba

Shortly before leaving office, Figueres granted former President Somoza a posthumous pardon, and permitted the Somoza family to return to Central America from exile. They did so, and to the surprise of many, Somoza's elder son, Luis Somoza Debayle, entered the presidential race in 1958 and won. While he proved to be a great deal more moderate and lenient of opposition than his father, he was criticized for appointing a disproportionate number of family members and close friends to top government and military positions, and several companies owned by the Somoza family and its friends acquired monopolies and accumulated millions in illicit wealth. The escalating level of corruption effectively radicalized certain segments of the population — particularly left-leaning clergy, college students, and trade unions — and made them ripe for communist infiltration.

Central America earned the undying hatred of Cuba's Fidel Castro when, in 1960, the country provided basing and logistical support for the ill-fated Bay of Pigs operation. Castro retaliated in kind by covertly funneling weapons and money to anti-government groups. In 1962, a radical left-wing guerrilla organization, the Sandinista National Liberation Front (Frente Sandinista de Liberación Nacional), named after the late revolutionary Augusto C. Sandino, was created, with the goal of overthrowing the government and establishing a Marxist-Leninist state aligned with the Soviet bloc. Beginning in 1964, a low-key insurgency began, with sporadic skirmishes between guerrillas and government forces taking place, mostly in the countryside.

In 1962, Luis's term came to an end, and he was succeeded by René Schick, widely viewed as a weak politician. Cynics lamented — not without justification — that the Somozas were the real "power behind the throne" during this time. Even so, Luis's plan to run for President in 1966 was thwarted by his unexpected death, by a massive heart attack, that same year. Luis's younger brother, Anastasio Somoza Debayle, ran in his place. He won a landslide victory, but the election was widely boycotted by the opposition. His first term was largely uneventful, and he stepped down in 1970, owing to a law which forbade consecutive re-election. Central American liberation hero and former President José Figueres Ferrer was elected to his third and final term that year.

1970s: The crisis years

The early 1970s were relatively calm and stable, in marked contrast to the social unrest and frequent anti-government demonstrations of the late 1960s. The economy was sound, and Figueres's social programs, moderation, and appeals for pragmatism dissuaded most Central Americans from supporting the FSLN, and the organization disappeared for the time being; most assumed that it disbanded, but it was simply biding its time.

Perhaps Figueres's most enduring legacy was his timely, effective response to the 1972 earthquake which devastated Managua, Nicaragua. He successfully sought, and received, considerable international assistance, from friendly and unfriendly governments alike (even Cuba and the Warsaw Pact countries contributed aid), as well as the private sector and non-profit organizations. Figueres appointed a bipartisan team of highly-efficient technocrats to oversee the reconstruction of Managua, and his appeals to national unity brought together Central Americans as no event has before or since. Even former President Somoza, a political rival of Figueres, effusively praised Figueres's "heroism and bold leadership in Central America's darkest hour."

Shortly toward the end of Figueres's term, a new constitution was adopted, replacing the unicameral legislature with a bicameral one and extending the President's term from four years to six (however, this would not take effect until after the next President took office).

Figueres retired from politics in 1974, and handed over leadership of the party to Daniel Oduber Quirós. That year, Obuder ran for President as candidate for the National Liberation Party, but lost in a close race to former President Somoza.

Initially, Somoza's second term was promising. Record levels of foreign investment poured into the country, and the economy flourished. Corruption remained rampant, but so long as the average Central American had a stable job and a roof over his head, he was willing to overlook this. Little did anyone suspect that the now-forgotten FSLN would soon return with a vengeance — and nearly bring down the government in the process.

The murder of newspaper editor Pedro Joaquín Chamorro, a long-time critic of the Somoza family, in 1975, provoked widespread demonstrations, some numbering in the hundreds of thousands, against the government. Although his involvement was never proven, Somoza was widely accused of ordering, or at least being privy to the planning of, Chamorro's murder. Chamorro's murder remains unsolved, and the circumstances surrounding his death remain highly controversial, contentious, and hotly debated to this day.

When ill-disciplined security forces shot and killed a number of the protesters, the situation was inflamed further, and the FSLN, capitalizing on the growing polarization of society and breakdown of stability, began staging a series of increasingly bold attacks on banks, police stations, military bases, power plants, and other "strategic" targets. Somoza responded by declaring a state of siege and granting the military nearly unlimited power to deal with the situation however they saw fit. Massive atrocities were committed by both sides, including torture, extrajudicial killings, and collective punishment.

By 1978, almost 20,000 civilians had been killed, and the economy was devastated. After a series of military reversals, the armed forces finally gained the upper hand, and the capture and execution of such major FSLN leaders as the Ortega brothers and Tomás Borge, effectively decapitated the resistance. The increasingly gruesome and brutal tactics of the FSLN also alienated an increasingly large segment of society. In July 1979, the FSLN offered to surrender, on the condition that Somoza resign. He agreed to do so, "in the interest of national reconciliation," and he stepped down on July 17, 1979, handing over the reins of power to his Vice-President, Francisco Urcuyo Maliaños. The remaining Sandinistas disbanded (most went into voluntary exile), and Urcuyo completed the remainder of Somoza's term before retiring from politics.

1980s—1990s: Renewal and recovery

In 1980, a relatively unknown politician — José Napoleón Duarte of the centrist Christian Democratic Party — was elected President on a platform of "reconstruction and reconciliation." The day he assumed office, all political prisoners were freed, and a blanket amnesty was granted to both military personnel and FSLN guerrillas who had committed human rights abuses. Duarte appointed people from across the political spectrum to his cabinet, encouraged all Central Americans to participate in the rebuilding of the country, and worked closely with the IMF and the World Bank in an effort to attract foreign investment into the country. His efforts largely succeeded, and by the time his term ended in 1986, the economy had recovered to its pre-1975 level. Duarte was succeeded by social democrat Óscar Arias of the National Liberation Party.

Under Arias and his successors, the center-right Alfredo Cristiani and Francisco Flores Pérez of the Nationalist Republican Alliance (as the Conservative Party was now called), the economy continued to grow, and free trade agreements were signed with various countries. President Flores Pérez came under significant criticism (mostly from abroad) when his government signed into law a bill making abortion illegal under any circumstances. Even so, most Central Americans approved of the bill, although the number of underground abortions skyrocketed, as did the number of maternal deaths due to unsafe abortions.

2000—present: The second Arias administration

Voters returned Arias to the presidency in 2004. He has continued the trade liberalization initiated by his predecessors, while also introducing a willing-buyer, willing-seller land reform program to address the considerable disparity in land distribution. Progress has been slow, but noticeable, and Arias himself remains popular with most Central Americans. Relations with the country's historic ally, the United States, remain cordial.

Economy

Central America is an upper-middle income mixed economy with a business-friendly climate, a generous welfare state, and a thriving middle class. The standard of living is fairly high, with a per capita income of about U.S. $5,800. Land ownership is widespread. The country remains a popular destination for foreign investment and job outsourcing. Central America is also the Latin American pioneer in the implementation of a modern welfare state. Its welfare spending is as high as that of Scandinavian countries.

Implementing CAFTA-DR (U.S.-Central American-Dominican Republic Free Trade Agreement), passing fiscal reform, pursuing responsible monetary policy, and creating an effective concessions process are the biggest challenges for the country's economic policymakers. Central America ranks 85th out of 175 countries in the World Bank's Doing Business Index. This hampers the flow of investment and resources badly needed to repair and rebuild the country's deteriorated public infrastructure.

Central America's major economic resources are its fertile land and frequent rainfall, its well-educated population, its political stability, and its location in the Central American isthmus, which provides easy access to North and South American markets and direct ocean access to the European and Asian continents. One-fourth of Central America's land is dedicated to national forests, often adjoining picturesque beaches, which has made the country a popular destination for affluent retirees and eco-tourists despite increasing crime.

Central America used to be known principally as a producer of bananas and coffee, but pineapples have surpassed coffee as the number two agricultural export. In recent years, Central America has successfully attracted important investments by such companies as Intel Corporation, Proctor and Gamble, and Hospira and Baxter Healthcare. Manufacturing and industry's contribution to GDP overtook agriculture over the course of the 1990s, led by foreign investment in Central America's free trade zone. Well over half of that investment has come from the United States. Dole and Chiquita have a large presence in the banana and pineapple industries. Two-way trade between the U.S. and Central America exceeded $40 billion in 2007.

The country's mountainous terrain and abundant rainfall have permitted the construction of numerous hydroelectric power plants, making it largely self-sufficient in electricity, but it is completely reliant on imports for liquid fuels. Central America has the potential to become a major electricity exporter if plans for new generating plants and a regional distribution grid are realized.

Central America's public infrastructure has suffered from a lack of maintenance and new investment. Most parts of the country are accessible through an extensive road system of more than 30,000 kilometers, although much of the system has fallen into disrepair. Contamination in rivers, beaches, and aquifers is a matter of rising concern. Just 3.5% of the country's sewage is managed in sewage treatment facilities and the Water and Sewage Institute (AyA) estimates that perhaps 50% of septic systems function. In 2007, Central America experienced nationwide blackouts resulting from a severe dry season (which limited hydroelectric resources) and the state electricity monopoly's inadequate investment in maintenance and capacity increases. Since 1999, tourism earns more foreign exchange than the combined exports of the country's three main cash crops: bananas, pineapples and coffee. Central America is famous for its gourmet coffee beans, with Tarrazú among the finest Arabica coffee beans in the world used for making espresso coffee.

Proposals to privatize state-owned utilities face strong public opposition.

Approximately 16% of the population lives below the poverty line. The unemployment rate currently stands at 5.5%.

Relatively high inflation (10%) and uneven income distribution also remain pressing concerns. The Arias administration has promised to tackle both of these issues, but how successful he will be remains to be seen.

Politics

Central America is a federal republic with a level of de-centralization surpassed only by Switzerland. Like Switzerland, it is highly democratic, and the Constitution guarantees a great deal of civil liberties. Suffrage is universal and (in theory) compulsory at age 18, but this is rarely enforced, and voter apathy is becoming increasingly common. Even so, Central Americans are a public-spirited, civic-minded, highly politically active people, and large demonstrations, both pro- and anti-government, are very common, especially among university students. Central America's media is among the freest in the hemisphere, and many newspapers regularly criticize government policies; however, many are also prone to sensationalism and rather lacking in objectivity.

Political debate is lively, and elections are a popular subject to discuss, even among non-voters.

Political parties

Party name	Party leader	Platform
National Liberation Party Partido Liberación Nacional	Francisco Antonio Pacheco Fernández	Social democracy, democratic socialism
Nationalist Liberal Party Partido Liberal Nacionalista	Anastasio Somoza Portocarrero	Populism, somocismo
Nationalist Republican Alliance Alianza Republicana Nacionalista	Rodrigo Ávila	Neoliberalism, social conservatism
Christian Democratic Party Partido Demócrata Cristiano	Rodolfo Parker	Centrism, Christian democracy
Citizens' Action Party Partido Acción Ciudadana	Epsy Campbell	Progressivism, anti-corruption
Libertarian Movement Movimiento Libertario	Otto Guevara	Classical liberalism, moderate libertarianism
Constitutionalist Liberal Party Partido Liberal Constitucionalista	Jorge Quant	Liberalism, anti-somocismo
Ecologist Green Party Partido Verde Ecologista	Edward Martín Salazar Cruz	Green politics, ecology
Democratic Change Cambio Democrático	Héctor Miguel Antonio Dada Hirezi	Center-left

The National Congress

The legislative branch of Central America is the bicameral National Congress (Congreso Nacional), comprising the Chamber of Deputies (Cámara de Diputados) and the Senate (Senado). Both houses convene in the National Palace (Palacio Nacional), located in the capital, San Salvador.

Sessions

The Congress ordinarily meets in the capital on April 15 each year, and holds sixty sessions. The number of sessions may be extended by thirty more by resolution of both houses, issued its own initiative or at the request of the executive branch. If Congress is unable to meet on the dates indicated, it does so as soon as possible. The houses open and closed their sessions simultaneously, and must hold them in such a way that the number of meetings between them in no case exceeds three, unless otherwise agreed between the two. The President of Central America witnesses the opening of regular sessions of Congress in the united chambers and submits a report on the actions of his administration, which he may commission to the Minister of the Government. This formality is not essential for Congress to exercise its legitimate functions. The quorum required for either house to hold sessions is a simple majority of its members (however, a quorum in the Senate does not take into account ex-Presidents/senators for life or the senator who attained his seat by virtue of coming in second place at the last presidential election).

Powers and functions

A congressional resolution requires the vote of an absolute majority of members, except in cases where the Constitution requires another kind of majority.

It is up to each house, without the intervention of the other:

1. To elect its Board of Directors, in which a secretary and corresponding vice-secretary shall belong to the party that won second place in the last election;
2. To fix the order of its sessions and all that concerns its routine garrison duty;
3. To organize the offices of its dependency, in agreement with the respective regulations;
4. To attend to its members
5. To question or investigate the Ministers of State and to investigate the economic and administratives operations of the executive branch by means of commissions;
6. To invite the other house to deliberate reunited;
7. To appoint, in accordance with the rules, committees that represent them in official acts;
8. To know of the resignation presented by any of its members;

It corresponds to the National Congress in separate houses:

1. To decree, to reform, to interpret and to countermand the laws;
2. To create and suppress jobs setting its endowments;
3. To vary, in extraordinary circumstances and for grave reasons of public convenience, the residence of the bodies of government;
4. To declare, and set the duration of, a state of economic emergency, if the circumstances require it (the laws on the basis of this statement issued by the Legislature or, in its recess, the executive branch, can not survive at the expense of constitutional guarantees outlined, beyond the time set in the decree in question);
5. To hear the decree-laws issued by the executive branch in case of emergency or public necessity;
6. To establish tenancy laws that restrict freedom of contract;
7. To approve (or reject) treaties concluded with foreign nations;
8. To lay and collect taxes and set the government budget (both chambers vote on each other's budget);
9. To identify the responsibilities of public officials and demarcate the territorial jurisdictions in which they must be exercised;
10. To impose contributions;
11. To recognize the national debt and fix its service;
12. To fix the currency and the conditions of the national currency, on the advice of the respective technical agency;
13. To set the system of weights and measures;
14. To declare war or authorize the President to do so;
15. To authorize the deployment of Central American troops abroad and allow or refuse the transit of foreign troops in Central America (if the National Congress is in recess, or in the case of war, this power is held by the executive branch);
16. To approve, modify or reject contracts that hold the executive branch on borrowing, colonization, navigation and other works of general utility involving temporary privileges permitted by the Constitution or compromise or dispose of assets of the nation or when they are applied sums not voted in the budget;
17. To grant or deny permission for Central Americans to accept charges from foreign countries when they should exercise them in Central America;
18. To authorize the foundation of banks of issue;
19. To legalize special or additional appropriations agreed to by the President and the Council of Ministers;
20. To grant amnesties or pardons for political crimes;
21. To declare the extension of its meetings;
22. To exercise any other functions or attributions granted by the Constitution or the law

It also corresponds to the National Congress in separate chambers at the initiative of the executive branch:

1. To declare bonuses, allowances, pensions, awards and honors, without prejudice to the powers that the President has as commander-in-chief of the armed forces;
2. To establish awards and grant temporary privileges permitted by the Constitution to the inventors or authors of works of utility or inventors of works and utility industries which have introduced new or upgraded existing ones;
3. To agree to to grant subsidies or premiums for objects of public utility seeking to establish new industries or to boost agriculture and livestock;
4. To decree the alienation or leasing of property and its application to public use, or authorize the executive to do so on convenient bases;
5. To grant the President permission to leave the country;
6. To decree loans;
7. To enable and close ports and provide maritime and land customs or dictate the rules by which the executive may do so

It corresponds to the National Congress in united chambers:

1. To choose its own directive which will consist of a President, Vice-President and two Secretaries with their corresponding Vice-Secretaries. A Secretary and his Vice-Secretary correspond to the oarty that won second place in the last election;
2. To fix the agenda of its meetings and all matters relating to its internal state;
3. To choose from among its members, in the last regular or special meeting, three designated to replace the President of Central America in case of absolute or temporary absence. Those designated must satisfy the requirements for being President;
4. To elect the judges of the Supreme Court of Justice and the Supreme Labor Tribunal, and the President of the Court of Auditers;
5. To accept the resignation of the President of Central America, or in exercise of the designated ones, the magistrates of the Courts of Justice, the Administrative Court, the magistrates of its choice of the Supreme Labor Tribunal, and the President of the Court of Auditers;
6. To receive the constitutional promise of the officials of their choice, or delegate this authority;
7. To know of the veto of the executive authority;
8. To know of the initiatives for reform of the Constitution and Constitutional Law;
9. To know of the report submitted by the executive on the orders handed down during the suspension of constitutional guarantees;
10. To declare the coat of arms, the national flag, and the national anthem, by a vote of two-thirds of members;
11. To exercise any other functions or attributions granted by the Constitution or the law

The faculties of the legislative power are non-transferable, except those to legislate in the branches of Public Works, Police, Social Assistance, Public Health, Agriculture and Animal Husbandry, Labor, Finance and Economy, Industry and Commerce, which may be delegated to the executive branch to exercise in recess of the National Congress. The delegated power to legislate in Finance does not include taxes or contributions to create or modify items in the general expenditure budget. Nevertheless, the President and Council of Ministers may set up contributions or taxes with general character in the event of civil war, international war involving Central America, or national catastrophe, but an account must be given to the National Congress at its next meeting.

Formulation of laws

A draft of each law is submitted to the Chamber of Deputies. If it decides to take it into consideration, it sends it to a commission and submits it to a first and second reading in different sessions. If the bill passes the Chamber of Deputies, it will then be sent to the Senate. The Senate then sends it to a commission and submits it to a first and second reading in different sessions. If it approves, the bill is then sent to the executive for promulgation. If a bill is scrapped in its entirety by the Senate, it will be returned to the Chamber of Deputies with the reasons for its rejection so that the house will decide, in a single debate, on the matter. If the Chamber of Deputies insists on the original bill, it will be sent back to the Senate, and if the Senate maintains its previous approach, it will be rejected; otherwise, it will be approved and sent to the executive for promulgation. A bill renovated or added to by the Senate will be sent to the Chamber of Deputies for debate; if the changes are not approved by the Chamber of Deputies, the bill will be returned to the Senate. If it insists on its criterion, the bill will be considered rejected, but if both chambers approve, it will be sent to the executive branch. If the Chamber of Deputies approves the deletions, alterations or additions made by the Senate, the draft will be returned to this house to pass on to the executive.

The draft Codes and the General Budget Revenues and Expenditures of the United Provinces, may be considered and approved by Chapters, with the agreement of a special committee of five members in each chamber.

When a chamber arranges to expose to the other their criterion on any legislative matter, it will do so through a commission, which will have the right to intervene in debates on the issue that may arise. In case of divergence of opinion between the chambers, joint committes composed of three deputies and two senators appointed by their respective chambers, may be appointed to propose ways to resolve the differences.

When the executive branch submits an initiative to Congress as a matter of urgency, each chamber must act within ten days.

If the President uses the power of veto, rejecting, modifying or adding to a bill, it must be returned to Congress through the Senate, within ten days of receipt, with the reasons on which he based his decision. If he approves the bill, it is signed into law.

When the Senate receives the veto of a bill, it immediately proposes a meeting of both chambers of Congress to submit it for consideration. If Congress ratifies the rejected bill or partially or completely accepts any additions or reforms added by the executive, by a vote of two-thirds of its members, the bill is sent back to the executive to be promulgated.

The following do not require promulgation by the executive branch: the budget law; and provisions installing or closing the Congress, transferring its residence to another place, and suspending or extending its meetings.

Composition and election

The Chamber of Deputies is made up of 150 deputies, elected directly by the people of their respective constituencies, on a proportional representative basis of one deputy for every 250,000 people (originally, one for every 30,000 people, but this was changed to accomodate for population growth). To be eligible for membership in the Chamber of Deputies, a candidate must be at least 25 years of age, a Central American citizen by birth (born of either a Central American father or mother, or both), in full enjoyment of their political and civic rights, and they must have been resident in the country for the previous five years.

The Senate is comprised of 30 elected members, directly elected by the people in a single national district. In addition, former Presidents of Central America, as well as the runner-up in the most recent presidential election, are entitled to membership in the Senate. The Senate currently has 33 senators: 30 elected members, 2 ex-Presidents (Alfredo Cristiani and Francisco Flores Pérez, both members of the Nationalist Republican Alliance), and the runner-up of the last presidential election (Anastasio Somoza Portocarrero of the Nationalist Liberal Party). To be eligible for membership in the Senate, a candidate must be at least 40 years of age, a Central American citizen by birth (born of either a Central American father or mother, or both), in full enjoyment of their political and civic rights, and they must have been resident in the country for the previous five years.

Members of both the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate serve for six year terms (except for ex-Presidents in the Senate, who serve for life). There are no term limits, and both consecutive and non-consecutive re-election are allowed.

The National Congress is presided over by a President of the Congress (Presidente del Congreso), elected by the Congress from among its members; this position is currently held by Carlos Sosa Coello of the National Liberation Party.

The composition of the current Congress is:

Party name	Chamber of Deputies	Senate
National Liberation Party	48	13
Nationalist Liberal Party	37	8
Nationalist Republican Alliance	30	6
Christian Democratic Party	15	2
Citizens' Action Party	8	1
Libertarian Movement Party	5	0
Constitutionalist Liberal Party	4	0
Ecologist Green Party	4	0
Democratic Change	3	0

The President

The executive branch is headed by the President (Presidente), who serves as chief of state, head of government, and commander-in-chief of the armed forces.

Unlike the President of the United States, who is elected by the Electoral College, the President of Central America is popularly elected; also unlike the President of the U.S., the Central American President's term is six years long. He is eligible for re-election, but his terms cannot be consecutive. There are no term limits, but a President by convention never serves more than two terms. The President and the Vice-President (Vicepresidente) are elected on the same ticket.

The Vice-President mainly serves as a "spare wheel," for the President; in the event that the President dies, resigns, becomes incapacitated, is removed from office, or is otherwise unable to fulfill his duties, the Vice-President does so in his stead. The President's official residence is the Casa Presidencial (English: "Presidential House").

The President has authority:

1. To defend the independence and honor of the nation and the integrity of its territory;
2. To execute and enforce the Constitution and laws;
3. To veto legislation (although the National Congress can override his veto by a vote of two-thirds or more of its members);
4. To regulate the laws without transgressing or distorting them, and with this restriction, issue decrees, resolutions and instructions;
5. To freely appoint and dismiss ministers and vice-ministers and other officials and employees of the executive branch, as well as make other appointments by law;
6. To conduct foreign affairs and to appoint and accredit, and receive and recognize, ambassadors, plenipotentiaries, diplomatic representatives and other diplomatic officers, consuls and consular officers;
7. To declare war (with the authorization of Congress) and repel foreign aggression (without the authorization of Congress, if the situation requires it);
8. To enter into treaties and other diplomatic negotiations, and ratify them upon approval by Congress;
9. To allow or deny the transit of foreign military forces in Central America;
10. To grant letters of naturalization and cancel them, in accordance with the law;
11. To exercise the oversight and supervision of credit institutions, and organizations that operate with money or other public property;
12. To enter into contracts under the Constitution and the laws for service delivery and implementation of public works and for purposes of general interest;
13. To rehabilitate under the law citizens whose rights are suspended;
14. To enable ports or close them; create, move or delete customs, under regulations issued by the Congress;
15. To register ships and aircraft as Central American in accordance with the law;
16. To grant merits, decorations, medals, diplomas, and awards established by law;
17. To perform such other functions of government and administration as required by law

To be eligible for President, a candidate must meet the following qualifications as a candidate for the Chamber of Deputies would.

The President's Cabinet members are listed as follows:

Portfolio	Minister
Attorney General Fiscal General	Ramón García Guzmán
Minister of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry Ministro de Agricultura y Ganadería	Rafael Ocón Mora
Minister of Defense Ministro de Defensa	Julio Salazar Ramirez
Minister of Economy, Industry, and Commerce Ministro de Economía, Industria y Comercio	Rómulo Martínez Hidalgo
Minister of Foreign Relations Ministro de Relaciones Exteriores	Roberto de Paula Hernández
Minister of Finance and Public Credit Ministro de Hacienda y Crédito Público	Tomás Caldera Guitierrez
Minister of the Government Ministro de la Gobernación	Rubén Urtecho Vegas
Minister of Labor Ministro del Trabajo	Leonardo Gallardo Ugarte
Minister of Public Education Ministro de Educación Pública	César López Sánchez
Minister of Public Health Ministro de Salud Pública	José Rafael Espada
Minister of Public Works Ministro de Obras Públicas	Amilcar Guerrero Cerezo

The Supreme Court of Justice

The judiciary of Central America comprises the Supreme Court of Justice, the Court of Appeals, the Supreme Labor Tribunal, the Administrative Court, State, District, and Local Judges, Judges of Labor, and Public Property Registrars. Federal and state judges serve six year terms; district judges serve three year terms; local judges serve one year terms. The judiciary is independent of the executive branch. All tribunal and court hearings are open to the public.

The nine-member Supreme Court of Justice (Suprema Corte de Justicia) functions as a court of last resort, hears cases against senior government officials, and reviews the constitutionality of laws. Its members are elected by the National Congress. The Court is presided over by the President of the Supreme Court of Justice (Presidente de la Corte Suprema de Justicia), a position which is essentially the equivalent of the Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court; he is chosen by the Court from among its own members. The current President of the Supreme Court of Justice is José Amílcar Velásquez Zárate.

Judges must be natural-born citizens, in full enjoyment of their political and civic rights, of proven honesty and morality, at least 35 years of age (but no older than 60), and they must have practiced law for a minimum of ten years.

State governments

State and local governments are organizationally somewhat similar to the federal government. Each state has its own legislature (known simply as "Congress"; however, state legislatures differ from the National Congress in that they are unicameral), executive branch (headed by a popularly elected Governor), and judiciary (like its federal counterpart, known as the Supreme Court of Justice). Members of state legislatures serve two-year terms, which are staggered so that half of the members are elected one year, and the other half are elected the following year. A Governor's term of office is four years; most states allow consecutive re-election, but all states except El Salvador also have term limits. Costa Rica's Supreme Court of Justice is popularly elected (members serve six year terms, which are staggered so that one-third of its members are elected every two years), Guatemala's is appointed by the Governor, and the remainder are appointed by their respective state legislatures.

The Constitution stipulates that whatever powers are not explicitly granted to the federal government, nor denied by it to the states, are reserved for the state and local governments. As such, the states enjoy a very large degree of autonomy.

Subdivisions

The United Provinces of the Center of America comprises 5 states (estados), divided into 77 departments (departamentos), which are in turn divided into 1,126 municipalities (municipios).

The states, departments, and municipalities of Central America are listed as follows:

Costa Rica

Alajuela

• Alajuela
• Alfaro Ruiz
• Atenas
• Grecia
• Guatuso
• Los Chiles
• Naranjo
• Orotina
• Palmares
• Poás
• San Carlos
• San Mateo
• San Ramón
• Upala
• Valverde Vega

Cartago

• Alvarado
• Cartago
• El Guarco
• Jiménez
• La Unión
• Oreamuno
• Paraíso
• Turialba

Guanacaste

• Abangares
• 8Bagaces
• Cañas
• Carrillo
• Hojancha
• La Cruz
• Liberia
• Nandayure
• Nicoya
• Santa Cruz
• Tilarán

Heredia

• Barva
• Belén
• Flores
• Heredia
• Santa Bárbara
• Santo Domingo
• San Isidro
• San Pablo
• San Rafael
• Sarapiquí

Limón

• Guácimo
• Limón
• Matina
• Pococí
• Siquirres
• Talamanca

Puntarenas

• Aguirre
• Buenos Aires
• Corredores
• Coto Brus
• Esparza
• Garabito
• Golfito
• Montes de Oro
• Osa
• Parrita
• Puntarenas

San José

• Acosta
• Alajuelita
• Aserrí
• Curridabat
• Desamparados
• Dota
• Escazú
• Goicoechea
• León Cortés
• Montes de Oca
• Mora
• Moravia
• Pérez Zeledón
• Puriscal
• San José
• Santa Ana
• Tarrazú
• Tibás
• Turrubares
• Vázquez de Coronado

El Salvador

Ahuachapán

• Ahuachapán
• Apaneca
• Atiquizaya
• Concepción de Ataco
• El Refugio
• Guaymango
• Jujutla
• San Francisco Menéndez
• San Lorenzo
• San Pedro Puxtla
• Tacuba
• Turín

Cabañas

• Cinquera
• Dolores
• Guacotecti
• Ilobasco
• Jutiapa
• San Isidro
• Sensuntepeque
• Tejutepeque
• Victoria

Chalatenango

• Agua Caliente
• Arcatao
• Azacualpa
• Chalatenango
• Citalá
• Comalapa
• Concepción Quezaltepeque
• Dulce Nombre de María
• El Carrizal
• El Paraíso
• La Laguna
• La Palma
• La Reina
• Las Vueltas
• Nombre de Jesús
• Nueva Concepción
• Nueva Trinidad
• Ojos de Agua
• Potonico
• San Antonio de la Cruz
• San Antonio Los Ranchos
• San Fernando
• San Francisco Lempa
• San Francisco Morazán
• San Ignacio
• San Isidro Labrador
• San José Cancasque
• San José Las Flores
• San Luis del Carmen
• San Miguel de Mercedes
• San Rafael
• Santa Rita
• Tejutla

Cuscatlán

• Candelaria
• Cojutepeque
• El Carmen
• El Rosario
• Monte San Juan
• Oratorio de Concepción
• San Bartolomé Perulapía
• San Cristóbal
• San José Guayabal
• San Pedro Perulapán
• San Rafael Cedros
• San Ramón
• Santa Cruz Analquito
• Santa Cruz Michapa
• Suchitoto
• Tenancingo
• Zacatecas

La Libertad

• Antiguo Cuscatlán
• Chiltiupán
• Ciudad Arce
• Colón
• Comasagua
• Huizúcar
• Jayaque
• Jicalapa
• La Libertad
• Nuevo Cuscatlán
• Opico
• Quezaltepeque
• Sacacoyo
• San José Villanueva
• San Matías
• San Pablo Tacachico
• Santa Tecla
• Talnique
• Tamanique
• Teotepeque
• Tepecoyo
• Zaragoza

La Paz

• Cuyultitán
• El Rosario
• Jerusalén
• Mercedes La Ceiba
• Olocuilta
• Paraíso de Osorio
• San Antonio Masahuat
• San Emigdio
• San Francisco Chinameca
• San Juan Nonualco
• San Juan Talpa
• San Juan Tepezontes
• San Luis La Herradura
• San Luis Talpa
• San Miguel Tepezontes
• San Pedro Masahuat
• San Pedro Nonualco
• San Rafael Obrajuelo
• Santa María Ostuma
• Santiago Nonualco
• Tapalhuaca
• Zacatecoluca

La Unión

• Anamorós
• Bolívar
• Concepción de Oriente
• Conchagua
• El Carmen
• El Sauce
• Intipucá
• La Unión
• Lislique
• Meanguera del Golfo
• Nueva Esparta
• Pasaquina
• Polorós
• San Alejo
• San José
• Santa Rosa de Lima
• Yayantique
• Yucuaiquín

Morazán

• Arambala
• Cacaopera
• Chilanga
• Corinto
• Delicias de Concepción
• El Divisadero
• El Rosario
• Gualococti
• Guatajiagua
• Joateca
• Jocoaitique
• Jocoro
• Lolotiquillo
• Meanguera
• Osicala
• Perquín
• San Carlos
• San Fernando
• San Francisco Gotera
• San Isidro
• San Simón
• Sensembra
• Sociedad
• Torola
• Yamabal
• Yoloaiquín

San Miguel

• Carolina
• Chapeltique
• Chinameca
• Chirilagua
• Ciudad Barrios
• Comacarán
• El Tránsito
• Lolotique
• Moncagua
• Nueva Guadalupe
• Nuevo Edén de San Juan
• San Antonio
• San Gerardo
• San Jorge
• San Luis de la Reina
• San Miguel
• San Rafael
• Sesori
• Uluazapa

San Salvador

• Aguilares
• Apopa
• Ayutuxtepeque
• Cuscatancingo
• Delgado
• El Paisnal
• Guazapa
• Ilopango
• Mejicanos
• Nejapa
• Panchimalco
• Rosario de Mora
• San Marcos
• San Martín
• San Salvador
• Santiago Texacuangos
• Santo Tomás
• Soyapango
• Tonacatepeque

San Vicente

• Apastepeque
• Guadalupe
• San Cayetano Istepeque
• San Esteban Catarina
• San Ildefonso
• San Lorenzo
• San Sebastián
• Santa Clara
• Santo Domingo
• San Vicente
• Tecoluca
• Tepetitán
• Verapaz

Santa Ana

• Candelaria de la Frontera
• Chalchuapa
• Coatepeque
• El Congo
• El Porvenir
• Masahuat
• Metapán
• San Antonio Pajonal
• San Sebastián Salitrillo
• Santa Ana
• Santa Rosa Guachipilín
• Santiago de la Frontera
• Texistepeque

Sonsonate

• Acajutla
• Armenia
• Caluco
• Cuisnahuat
• Izalco
• Juayúa
• Nahuizalco
• Nahulingo
• Salcoatitán
• San Antonio del Monte
• San Julián
• Santa Catarina Masahuat
• Santa Isabel Ishuatán
• Santo Domingo
• Sonsonate
• Sonzacate

Usulután

• Alegría
• Berlín
• California
• Concepción Batres
• El Triunfo
• Ereguayquín
• Estanzuelas
• Jiquilisco
• Jucuapa
• Jucuarán
• Mercedes Umaña
• Nueva Granada
• Ozatlán
• Puerto El Triunfo
• San Agustín
• San Buenaventura
• San Dionisio
• San Francisco Javier
• Santa Elena
• Santa María
• Santiago de María
• Tecapán
• Usulután

Guatemala

Alta Verapaz

• Chahal
• Chisec
• Cobán
• Fray Bartolomé de las Casas
• Lanquín
• Panzós
• San Cristóbal Verapaz
• Santa Cruz Verapaz
• San Juan Chamelco
• San Pedro Carchá
• Santa Catalina la Tinta
• Santa María Cahabón
• Senahú
• Tactic
• Tamahú
• Tucurú

Baja Verapaz

• Cubulco
• Granados
• Purulhá
• Rabinal
• Salamá
• San Jerónimo
• San Miguel Chicaj
• Santa Cruz El Chol

Chimaltenango

• Acatenango
• Chimaltenango
• Comalapa
• El Tejar
• Parramos
• Patzicía
• Patzún
• Pochuta
• San Andrés Itzapa
• San José Poaquil
• San Martín Jilotepeque
• Santa Apolonia
• Santa Cruz Balanyá
• Tecpán Guatemala
• Yepocapa
• Zaragoza

Chiquimula

• Camotán
• Chiquimula
• Concepción Las Minas
• Esquipulas
• Ipala
• Jocotán
• Olopa
• Quezaltepeque
• San Jacinto
• San José La Arada
• San Juan Ermita

El Petén

• Dolores
• Flores
• La Libertad
• Melchor de Mencos
• Poptún
• San Andrés
• San Benito
• San Francisco
• San José
• San Luis
• Santa Ana
• Sayaxché

El Progreso

• El Jícaro
• Guastatoya
• Morazán
• San Agustín Acasaguastlán
• San Antonio La Paz
• San Cristóbal Acasaguastlán
• Sanarate
• Sansare

El Quiché

• Canillá
• Chajul
• Chicaman
• Chiché
• Chichicastenango
• Chinique
• Cunén
• Joyabaj
• Nebaj
• Sacapulas
• Patzité
• Pachalúm
• Playa Grande Ixcán
• San Andrés Sajcabajá
• San Antonio Ilotenango
• San Bartolomé Jocotenango
• San Juan Cotzal
• San Pedro Jocopilas
• Santa Cruz del Quiché
• Uspantán
• Zacualpa

Escuintla

• Escuintla
• Guanagazapa
• Iztapa
• La Democracia
• La Gomera
• Masagua
• Nueva Concepción
• Palín
• San José
• San Vicente Pacaya
• Santa Lucía Cotzumalguapa
• Siquinalá
• Tiquisate

Guatemala

• Amatitlán
• Chinautla
• Chuarrancho
• Fraijanes
• Guatemala City
• Mixco
• Palencia
• Petapa
• San José del Golfo
• San José Pinula
• San Juan Sacatepéquez
• San Pedro Ayampuc
• San Pedro Sacatepéquez
• San Raymundo
• Santa Catarina Pinula
• Villa Canales

Huehuetenango

• Aguacatán
• Chiantla
• Colotenango
• Concepción Huista
• Cuilco
• Huehuetenango
• Jacaltenango
• La Democracia
• La Libertad
• Malacatancito
• Nentón
• San Antonio Huista
• San Gaspar Ixchil
• San Ildefonso Ixtahuacán
• San Juan Atitán
• San Juan Ixcoy
• San Mateo Ixtatán
• San Miguel Acatán
• San Pedro Necta
• Soloma
• San Rafael La Independencia
• San Rafael Petzal
• San Sebastián Coatán
• San Sebastián Huehuetenango
• Santa Ana Huista
• Santa Bárbara
• Santa Cruz Barillas
• Santa Eulalia
• Santiago Chimaltenango
• Tectitán
• Todos Santos Cuchumatán
• Union Cantinil

Izabal

• El Estor
• Livingston
• Los Amates
• Morales
• Puerto Barrios

Jalapa

• Jalapa
• Mataquescuintla
• Monjas
• San Carlos Alzatate
• San Luis Jilotepeque
• San Manuel Chaparrón
• San Pedro Pinula

Jutiapa

• Agua Blanca
• Asunción Mita
• Atescatempa
• Comapa
• Conguaco
• El Adelanto
• El Progreso
• Jalpatagua
• Jerez
• Jutiapa
• Moyuta
• Pasaco
• Quezada
• San José Acatempa
• Santa Catarina Mita
• Yupiltepeque
• Zapotitlán

Quetzaltenango

• Almolonga
• Cabricán
• Cajolá
• Cantel
• Coatepeque
• Colomba
• Concepción Chiquirichapa
• El Palmar
• Flores Costa Cuca
• Génova
• Huitán
• La Esperanza
• Olintepeque
• Ostuncalco
• Palestina de Los Altos
• Quetzaltenango
• Salcajá
• San Carlos Sija
• San Francisco La Unión
• San Martín Sacatepéquez
• San Mateo
• San Miguel Sigüilá
• Sibilia
• Zunil

Retalhuleu

• Champerico
• El Asintal
• Nuevo San Carlos
• Retalhuleu
• San Andrés Villa Seca
• San Felipe
• San Martín Zapotitlán
• San Sebastián
• Santa Cruz Muluá

Sacatepéquez

• Alotenango
• Antigua Guatemala
• Ciudad Vieja
• Jocotenango
• Magdalena Milpas Altas
• Pastores
• San Antonio Aguas Calientes
• San Bartolomé Milpas Altas
• San Lucas Sacatepéquez
• San Miguel Dueñas
• Santiago Sacatepéquez
• Santa Catarina Barahona
• Santa Lucía Milpas Altas
• Santa María de Jesús
• Santo Domingo Xenacoj
• Sumpango

San Marcos

• Ayutla
• Catarina
• Comitancillo
• Concepción Tutuapa
• El Quetzal
• El Tumbador
• Esquipulas Palo Gordo
• Ixchiguan
• La Reforma
• Malacatán
• Nuevo Progreso
• Ocos
• Pajapita
• Río Blanco
• San Antonio Sacatepéquez
• San Cristóbal Cucho
• San José Ojetenam
• San Lorenzo
• San Marcos
• San Miguel Ixtahuacán
• San Pablo
• San Pedro Sacatepéquez
• San Rafael Pie de La Cuesta
• San Sibinal
• Sipacapa
• Tacaná
• Tajumulco
• Tejutla

Santa Rosa

• Barberena
• Casillas
• Chiquimulilla
• Cuilapa
• Guazacapán
• Nueva Santa Rosa
• Oratorio
• Pueblo Nuevo Viñas
• San Juan Tecuaco
• San Rafael Las Flores
• Santa Cruz Naranjo
• Santa María Ixhuatán
• Santa Rosa de Lima
• Taxisco

Sololá

• Concepción
• Nahualá
• Panajachel
• San Andrés Semetabaj
• San Antonio Palopó
• San José Chacayá
• San Juan La Laguna
• San Lucas Tolimán
• San Marcos La Laguna
• San Pablo La Laguna
• San Pedro La Laguna
• Santa Catarina Ixtahuacan
• Santa Catarina Palopó
• Santa Clara La Laguna
• Santa Cruz La Laguna
• Santa Lucía Utatlán
• Santa María Visitación
• Santiago Atitlán
• Sololá

Suchitepéquez

• Chicacao
• Cuyotenango
• Mazatenango
• Patulul
• Pueblo Nuevo
• Río Bravo
• Samayac
• San Antonio Suchitepéquez
• San Bernardino
• San Francisco Zapotitlán
• San Gabriel
• San José El Idolo
• San Juan Bautista
• San Lorenzo, Suchitepéquez
• San Miguel Panán
• San Pablo Jocopilas
• Santa Bárbara
• Santo Domingo Suchitepequez
• Santo Tomás La Unión
• Zunilito

Totonicapán

• Momostenango
• San Andrés Xecul
• San Bartolo
• San Cristóbal Totonicapán
• San Francisco El Alto
• Santa Lucía La Reforma
• Santa María Chiquimula
• Totonicapán

Zacapa

• Cabañas
• Estanzuela
• Gualán
• Huité
• La Unión
• Río Hondo
• San Diego
• Teculután
• Usumatlán
• Zacapa

Honduras

Atlántida

• Arizona
• El Porvenir
• Esparta
• Jutiapa
• La Ceiba
• La Masica
• San Francisco
• Tela

Choluteca

• Apacilagua
• Choluteca
• Concepción de María
• Duyure
• El Corpus
• El Triunfo
• Marcovia
• Morolica
• Namasigue
• Orocuina
• Pespire
• San Antonio de Flores
• San Isidro
• San José
• San Marcos de Colón
• Santa Ana de Yusguare

Colón

• Balfate
• Bonito Oriental
• Iriona
• Limón
• Sabá
• Santa Fé
• Santa Rosa de Aguán
• Sonaguera
• Tocoa
• Trujillo

Comayagua

• Ajuterique
• Comayagua
• El Rosario
• Esquías
• Humuya
• La Libertad
• Lamaní
• Las Lajas
• La Trinidad
• Lejamaní
• Meámbar
• Minas de Oro
• Ojos de Agua
• San Jerónimo
• San José de Comayagua
• San José del Potrero
• San Luis
• San Sebastián
• Siguatepeque
• Taulabé
• Villa de San Antonio

Copán

• Cabañas
• Concepción
• Copán Ruinas
• Corquín
• Cucuyagua
• Dolores
• Dulce Nombre
• El Paraíso
• Florida
• La Jigua
• La Unión
• Nueva Arcadia
• San Agustín
• San Antonio
• San Jerónimo
• San José
• San Juan de Opoa
• San Nicolás
• San Pedro de Copán
• Santa Rita
• Santa Rosa de Copán
• Trinidad de Copán
• Veracruz

Cortés

• Choloma
• La Lima
• Omoa
• Pimienta
• Potrerillos
• Puerto Cortés
• San Antonio de Cortés
• San Francisco de Yojoa
• San Manuel
• San Pedro Sula
• Santa Cruz de Yojoa
• Villanueva

El Paraíso

• Alauca
• Danlí
• El Paraíso
• Guinope
• Jacaleapa
• Liure
• Morocelí
• Oropolí
• Potrerillos
• San Antonio de Flores
• San Lucas
• San Matías
• Soledad
• Teupasenti
• Texiguat
• Trojes
• Vado Ancho
• Yauyupe
• Yuscarán

Francisco Morazán

• Alubarén
• Cedros
• Curarén
• Distrito Central
• El Porvenir
• Guaimaca
• La Libertad
• La Venta
• Lepaterique
• Maraita
• Marale
• Nueva Armenia
• Ojojona
• Orica
• Reitoca
• Sabanagrande
• San Antonio de Oriente
• San Buenaventura
• San Ignacio
• San Juan de Flores
• San Miguelito
• Santa Ana
• Santa Lucía
• Talanga
• Tatumbla
• Valle de Ángeles
• Vallecillo
• Villa de San Francisco
• Zamorano

Gracias a Dios

• Ahuas
• Brus Laguna
• Juan Francisco Bulnes
• Puerto Lempira
• Ramón Villeda Morales
• Wampusirpi

Intibucá

• Camasca
• Colomoncagua
• Concepción
• Dolores
• Intibucá
• Jesús de Otoro
• La Esperanza
• Magdalena
• Masaguara
• San Antonio
• San Francisco de Opalaca
• San Isidro
• San Juan
• San Marco de Sierra
• San Miguelito
• Santa Lucía
• Yamaranguila

Islas de la Bahía

• Guanaja
• José Santos Guardiola
• Roatán
• Útila

La Paz

• Aguaqueterique
• Cabañas
• Cane
• Chinacla
• Guajiquiro
• La Paz
• Lauterique
• Marcala
• Mercedes de Oriente
• Opatoro
• San Antonio del Norte
• San José
• San Juan
• San Pedro de Tutule
• Santa Ana
• Santa Elena
• Santa María
• Santiago de Puringla
• Yarula

Lempira

• Belén
• Candelaria
• Cololaca
• Erandique
• Gracias
• Gualcince
• Guarita
• La Campa
• La Iguala
• Las Flores
• La Unión
• La Virtud
• Lepaera
• Mapulaca
• Piraera
• San Andrés
• San Francisco
• San Juan Guarita
• San Manuel Colohete
• San Marcos de Caiquín
• San Rafael
• San Sebastián
• Santa Cruz
• Talgua
• Tambla
• Tomalá
• Valladolid
• Virginia

Ocotepeque

• Belén Gualcho
• Concepción
• Dolores Merendon
• Fraternidad
• La Encarnación
• La Labor
• Lucerna
• Mercedes
• Ocotepeque
• San Fernando
• San Francisco del Valle
• San Jorge
• San Marcos
• Santa Fé
• Sensenti
• Sinuapa

Olancho

• Campamento
• Catacamas
• Concordia
• Dulce Nombre de Culmí
• El Rosario
• Esquipulas del Norte
• Gualaco
• Guarizama
• Guata
• Guayape
• Jano
• Juticalpa
• La Unión
• Mangulile
• Manto
• Patuca
• Salamá
• San Esteban
• San Francisco de Becerra
• San Francisco de la Paz
• Santa Maria del Real
• Silca
• Yocón

Santa Bárbara

• Arada
• Atima
• Azacualpa
• Ceguaca
• Chinda
• Concepción del Norte
• Concepción del Sur
• El Nispero
• Gualala
• Ilama
• Las Vegas
• Macuelizo
• Naranjito
• Nueva Frontera
• Nuevo Celilac
• Petoa
• Protección
• Quimistán
• San Francisco de Ojuera
• San José de Colinas
• San Luis
• San Marcos
• San Nicolás
• San Pedro Zacapa
• Santa Bárbara
• Santa Rita
• San Vicente Centenario
• Trinidad

Valle

• Alianza
• Amapala
• Aramecina
• Caridad
• Goascorán
• Langue
• Nacaome
• San Francisco de Coray
• San Lorenzo

Yoro

• Arenal
• El Negrito
• El Progreso
• Jocón
• Morazán
• Olanchito
• Santa Rita
• Sulaco, Yoro
• Victoria
• Yorito
• Yoro

Nicaragua

Boaco

• Boaco
• Camoapa
• San José de los Remates
• San Lorenzo
• Santa Lucía
• Teustepe

Carazo

• Diriamba
• Dolores
• El Rosario
• Jinotepe
• La Conquista
• La Paz de Carazo
• San Marcos
• Santa Teresa

Chinandega

• Chichigalpa
• Chinandega
• Cinco Pinos
• Corinto
• El Realejo
• El Viejo
• Posoltega
• Puerto Morazán
• San Francisco del Norte
• San Pedro del Norte
• Santo Tomás del Norte
• Somotillo
• Villa Nueva

Chontales

• Acoyapa
• Comalapa
• El Coral
• Juigalpa
• La Libertad
• San Francisco de Cuapa
• San Pedro de Lóvago
• Santo Domingo
• Santo Tomás
• Villa Somoza

Estelí

• Condega
• Estelí
• La Trinidad
• Pueblo Nuevo
• San Juan de Limay
• San Nicolás

Granada

• Diria
• Diriomo
• Granada
• Nandaime

Jinotega

• El Cuá
• Jinotega
• La Concordia
• San José de Bocay
• San Rafael del Norte
• San Sebastián de Yalí
• Santa María de Pantasma
• Wiwilí

León

• El Jicaral
• El Sauce
• La Paz Centro
• Larreynaga
• León
• Nagarote
• Quezalguaque
• San José de Achuapa
• Santa Rosa del Peñón
• Telica

Madriz

• Las Sabanas
• Palacagüina
• San José de Cusmapa
• San Juan del Río Coco
• San Lucas
• Somoto
• Telpaneca
• Totogalpa
• Yalagüina

Managua

• Ciudad Sandino
• El Crucero
• Managua
• Mateare
• San Francisco Libre
• San Judas
• San Rafael del Sur
• Ticuantepe
• Tipitapa
• Villa Chamorro

Masaya

• Catarina
• La Concepción
• Masatepe
• Masaya
• Nandasmo
• Nindirí
• Niquinomo
• San Juan de Oriente
• Tisma

Matagalpa

• Ciudad Darío
• Esquipulas
• Matagalpa
• Matiguas
• Muy Muy
• Rancho Grande
• Río Blanco
• San Dionisio
• San Isidro
• San Ramón
• Sébaco
• Terrabona
• Tuma-La Dalia

Nueva Segovia

• Ciudad Antigua
• Dipilto
• El Jícaro
• Jalapa
• Macuelizo
• Mozonte
• Murra
• Ocotal
• Quilalí
• San Fernando
• Santa María
• Wiwilí de Nueva Segovia

Rivas

• Altagracia
• Belén
• Buenos Aires
• Cárdenas
• Moyogalpa
• Potosí
• Rivas
• San Jorge
• San Juan del Sur
• Tola

Río San Juan

• El Almendro
• El Castillo
• Morrito
• San Carlos
• San Juan del Norte
• San Miguelito

Zelaya

• Bluefields
• Bocana de Paiwas
• Bonanza
• Corn Island
• Desembocadura de la Cruz de Río Grande
• El Ayote
• El Rama
• El Tortugero
• Kukra Hill
• La Cruz de Río Grande
• Laguna de Perlas
• Muelle de los Bueyes
• Nueva Guinea
• Prinzapolka
• Puerto Cabezas
• Rosita
• Siuna
• Waslala
• Waspam
• Mulukuku

States

State	Capital	Governor	Population	Area
Costa Rica	San José	Kevin Casas Zamora	4,195,914	51,100 km²
El Salvador	San Salvador	Ana Vilma de Escobar	7,066,403	21,040 km²
Guatemala	Guatemala City	Álvaro Colom	13,002,206	108,890 km²
Honduras	Tegucigalpa	Porfirio Lobo Sosa	7,639,327	112,492 km²
Nicaragua	Managua	Alexis Argüello	5,785,846	129,494 km²

Demographics

Age structure

0-14 years = 27.2%
15-64 years = 66.8%
65 years and over = 6%

Sex ratio

At birth = 1.05 male(s)/female
Under 15 years = 1.05 male(s)/female
15-64 years = 1.02 male(s)/female
65 years and over = 0.86 male(s)/female
Total population = 1.02 male(s)/female

Infant mortality rate

Total = 13.4 deaths/1,000 live births
Male = 14.35 deaths/1,000 live births
Female = 12.42 deaths/1,000 live births

Life expectancy at birth

Total population = 77.4 years
Male = 74.79 years
Female = 80.14 years

Total fertility rate

2.17 children born/woman

HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate

0.6%

Nationality

Noun: Central American(s)
Adjective: Central American

Ethnic groups

Mestizo = 76.6%
Amerindian = 16.4%
White = 4.5%
Black = 2.1%
Other = 0.4%

Religions

Roman Catholic = 68.2%
Protestant = 23.5%
Jehovah's Witnesses = 0.7%
Mormon = 0.1%
Other = 1.6%
None = 5.9%

Languages

Spanish (official)
English (spoken as a second language by many educated Central Americans)
Indigenous dialects

Literacy rate

Definition: Age 15 and over can read and write
Total population: 91.9%
Male: 92.5%
Female: 91.2%

Culture

National symbols of Central America
Anthem	La Granadera
Hero	José Figueres Ferrer
Animal	Jaguar
Bird	Turquoise-browed Motmot
Flower	Lycaste skinneri
Tree	Enterolobium cyclocarpum
Fruit	Banana
Sport	Fútbol (soccer)

Central America enjoys rich diversity in people and cultures. The Roman Catholic Church, which claims almost 70% of the population as adherents, wields a strong influence on the country's society and politics. Much of the population is staunchly conservative on social issues.

Nearly every Central American is rabidly enthusiastic for sports, especially fútbol (soccer), which can only be described as a national obsession, enjoyed by Central Americans of every age, race, class, gender, and creed. The nation's love of sports is not confined solely to soccer, however; baseball, basketball, hunting, and fishing are also popular.

Central Americans are said to be a warm and hospitable people, and the majority of tourists who come to the country leave with a favorable impression, describing the Central Americans as gracious hosts and charming, amiable people.

Indigenous Central Americans are famous for their colorful and elaborate clothing, fascinating stories and legends, and the world-captivating temples and pyramids built by their forefathers.

Public holidays

• January 1 - New Year's Day
• March or April - Maundy Thursday, Good Friday, Holy Saturday, Easter Sunday, and Easter Monday
• April 14 - Day of the Americas
• April 24 - Constitution Day
• May 1 - Labor Day
• May 10 - Mother's Day
• August 15 - Assumption of Mary
• September 10 - Children's Day
• September 15 - Independence Day
• September 25 - José Figueres Ferrer
• October 12 - Meeting of Cultures Day
• November 1 - All Saints' Day
• December 24 - Christmas Eve
• December 25 - Christmas Day

note: Each state also has its own public holiday commemorating its patron saint.