Canada

The Republic of Canada (République du Canada) is a republic in North America, stretching across the width of the centre of the North American landmass generally to the north of the Great Lakes, Saint Lawrence River, and Western Sea.

The national capital is Québec.

Although constitutionally defined as a unitary republic, Canada shares some power with its four regions (régions) which regroup the 63 departments (départements), and four indigenous territories (territoires autochthones).

Inhabited for at least ten millennia by aboriginal peoples, Canada is the successor to the French colonies.

Canada obtained its sovereignty from France in a process beginning from the declaration of independence in 1852. Canada was then still part of France, but refused the overthrow of the 2nd French Republic by Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte. The ensuing negociations were though peaceful, and the process culminated in the promulgation of the Canadian republic in 1856, with Napoleon III as sovereign president of the Republic, represented by a governor-general.

Full independence was then achieved in 1867, with the election of a Canadian president.

Today, Canada is governed as a republic and parliamentary democracy. Canada's head of state is its president. The head of government is the Prime Minister. The most recent federal general election was held on 23 January 2006.

French is the official language of the country. In the early 1970s, Canada began to adopt policies based on the concepts of cultural diversity and multiculturalism. Many Canadians now view this as one of the country's key attributes.

A technologically advanced and industrialized nation, Canada is a net exporter of energy because of its large fossil fuel deposits, nuclear energy generation, and hydroelectric power capacity.

Its diversified economy relies heavily on an abundance of natural resources and trade within the North American Union, which Canada is one of the founders, and particularly with the Philadelphian Union and California.

One of the most important features in Canada's economy is transportation, especially by the Western Seaway, which connects the Atlantic and Pacific oceans through the St. Lawrence river, the Great Lakes and the Orient Canal.

Canada's name

The name Canada is believed to come from the Huron-Iroquois word kanata, which means "village" or "settlement". In 1535, locals used the word to tell Jacques Cartier the way to Stadacona, site of present-day Quebec City. Cartier used Canada to refer not only to Stadacona, but also to the entire area subject to Donnacona, Chief at Stadacona; by 1547, maps began referring to this and the surrounding area as Canada.

Geography

Canada has land or water borders with most of the other countries in North America, including, clockwise from the north, Nahiyaw, Nunavut, New Wales, Musquodoboit, Massachusetts Bay, Vermont, the Philadelphian Union, California, and British Columbia.

The country's largest cities are Québec and Montréal (in Québec), Toronto (in Ontario), La Vérendrye (in Manitoba), and Séhalte (in Île-Ste-Hélène).

Other important cities:

In Québec: Chicoutimi, Drumont, Gaspé, Gatineau, Grandes-Fourches, Laval, Longueuil, Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu, Saint-Jérôme, Saint-Georges, Rimouski, Roberval, Trois-Rivières.
In Ontario: Barry, La Fayette, Niagara, Sainte-Catherine, Ottawa, Paris, Ste-Anne-des-Pins, Versailles.
In Manitoba: Coeur-d'Alène, Juillet (site of the 1988 Winter Olympics), Saint-Albert, Saint-Boniface.
In Île-Sainte-Hélène: Tacoma, Port-Vancouver.

Regions, departments and territories

Île Sainte-Hélène

Capital: Olympie

Pacifique (48) (prefecture: Olympie)
Volcans (63) (prefecture: Tacoma).

Manitoba

Capital: Saint-Boniface

Assiniboine (05) (prefecture: Portage-La-Prairie)
Deux-Saskatchewan (11) (prefecture: Batoche)
Glaciers (17) (prefecture: Coeur-d'Alène)
Haute-Rouge (21) (prefecture: St-Fargeau)
Haute-Saskatchewan (22) (prefecture: St-Albert)
Lac-Winnipeg (30) (prefecture: Beauséjour)
Mer-de-l'Ouest (36) (prefecture: La Vérendrye)
Piémont (49) (prefecture: Cerf-Rouge)
Prairies (50) (prefecture: Gravelbourg)
Qu'Appelle (51) (prefecture: La Reine)
Rocheuses (55) (prefecture: Juillet)
Rouge-et-Assiniboine (56) (prefecture: Saint-Boniface)
Saskatchewan (57) (prefecture: Dauphin)

Ontario

Capital: Toronto

Algoma (02) (prefecture: Sault-Ste-Marie)
Algonquins (03) (prefecture: Bonnechère)
Baie-Huronne (07) (prefecture: Pénétanguichène)
Falaises (13) (prefecture: La Fayette)
Grande-Rivière (18) (prefecture: Berlin)
Lac-des-Bois (25) (prefecture: Fort-Françoise)
Lac-Érié (26) (prefecture: Versailles)
Lac-Ontario (27) (prefecture: Toronto)
Lac-Supérieur (29) (prefecture: Duluth)
Manitoulin (34) (prefecture: Sainte-Anne-des-Pins)
Mer-Douce (37) (prefecture: St-Ouen)
Mille-Îles (38) (prefecture: Frontenac)
Missinaba (39) (prefecture: Barry)
Missisuaga (65) (prefecture: Missisauga)
Muscoca (42) (prefecture: Pierrebourg)
Niagara (43) (prefecture: Sainte-Catherine)
Nipigon (44) (prefecture: Baie-du-Tonnerre)
Nipissin (45) (prefecture: Baie-du-Nord)
Quinte (52) (prefecture: Belleville)
Rideau (54) (prefecture: Outaoutais)
Saint-Laurent-et-Outaouais (59) (prefecture: Bretagne)
Seine (61) (prefecture: Paris)
Témiscamingue (62) (prefecture: Nouvelle-Lille)

Québec

Capital: Montréal

Abitibi (01) (prefecture: Rouyn)
Appalaches (04) (prefecture: Lac-Mégantic)
Bas-Saint-Laurent (08) (prefecture: Rimouski)
Basse-Chaudière (09) (prefecture: Lévis)
Côte-Nord (10) (prefecture: Sept-Îles)
Fjord (14) (prefecture: Chicoutimi)
Gaspésie (15) (prefecture: Gaspé)
Gatineau (16) (prefecture: Gatineau)
Haut-Saint-Laurent (19) (prefecture: Salaberry)
Haute-Chaudière (20) (prefecture: St-Georges)
Haute-Yamaska (23) (prefecture: Avignon)
Île-de-la-Madeleine (24) (prefecture: Cap-aux-Meules)
Lac-Saint-Jean (28) (prefecture: Alma)
L'Assomption (31) (prefecture: Joliette)
Laurentides (32) (prefecture: St-Jérôme)
Malbaie (43) (prefecture: Baie-St-Paul)
Memphremagog (36) (prefecture: Grandes-Fourches)
Montmorency (40) (prefecture: Québec)
Mont-Royal (41) (prefecture: Montréal)
Richelieu (53) (prefecture: St-Jean-s/Richelieu)
Saint-François (58) (prefecture: Drumont)
Saint-Maurice (60) (prefecture: Trois-Rivières)
Val-des-Mille-Îles (66) (prefecture: Laval)
Val-Saint-Laurent (67) (prefecture: Longueil)
Yamaska (64) (prefecture: St-Hyacinthe)

Indigenous territories

Athabasca (06) (capital: Grande-Prairie)
Eeyou Istchi (12) (capital: Chibougamau) - Cree
Nitassinan (46) (capital: Natashquan) - Innu
Nunatsiavut (47) (capital: Nain) - Inuit

Note on numbering: The departments and indigenous territories are numbered together in alphabetical order, as in France. This is reflected in licence plate and postal codes, for example.

Three departments were added in 1967 (Missisauga for the suburbs of Toronto, Val-des-Mille-Îles and Val-St-Laurent for the suburbs of Montréal), and were numbered after the original sequence.

Nitassinan took over 46 from the former territory of Nord-Est, which included it and Nunatsiavut. Nunatsiavut took over 47, formerly the number of the territory of Nord-Ouest, which included Denenedeh, Nahiyaw, and Nunavut before they gained full autonomy.

History

See article: History of Canada

Government

File:Assemblée Nationale, Québec

Canada is a republic and a parliamentary democracy with a unitary system of parliamentary government, and strong democratic traditions. The political system under which Canada operates is derived from that of the French republic, but with some British and Philadelphian influences.

Canada's constitution governs the legal framework of the country and consists of written text and unwritten traditions and conventions. The Constitution of the Republic was approved by referendum on July 29, 1856, after the election of a Constituent assembly.

It has been amended many times since. The modern amending formula is by referendum (usually), or by two-thirds approval by the Congress, which is when the Legislative assembly and Senate sit together (more rarely used now).

The Constitution includes the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (French: La Déclaration des droits de l'Homme et du citoyen), one of the fundamental documents of the French Revolution, defining a set of individual rights and collective rights of the people.

Republic

Canada was already a part of the French republic in 1852.

The declaration of independence was caused by the refusal of Canada's colonial assembly to hold the referendum legalizing the coup by then French president Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte. Louis-Hippolyte LaFontaine, Canadian prime minister, held his own referendum confirming the assembly's declaration. Tensions mounted, threatening violence, but distance and alliance with Philadelphia prevented violence.

The ensuing stalemate was sloved in 1856, when Napoleon III was confirmed as sovereign president of the Canadian republic.

A more liberal Imperial government in France accepted full independence with the election of a Canadian president in 1867. That ended the last tie with France.

Head of State

File:Michaëlle Jean, President of Canada

The head of state is the President of Canada. In keeping with itss parliamentary system of government the President exercises largely a ceremonial role but does possess certain reserve powers. The presidency is open to all citizens who are at least 30. The president was until 1952 chosen by the Congress, that is, the members of the Legislative Assembly and the Senate. Since then, they are directly elected by secret ballot. However, the old traditon of being chosen by the Congress survives in that a candidate may also be chosen by a consensus among the political parties, in which case it is unnecessary to proceed to a ballot. The President is elected to a six year term; no candidate may serve more than two terms.

The role of the president which on paper seems to be all-encompassing, since it is derived from the imperial governement which governed France at that time. However, the president has very few powers, and is largely a ceremonial figurehead. They retain the "right to advise, the right to encourage, and the right to warn." They retain most notably the power to appoint and dismiss a prime minister, dissolve the Assembly. They appointed members of the Senate, but since 1982, Senators are now elected. However, the great majority of other prerogatives and duties have devolved to the prime minister.

Canada's predident is currently Her Excellency the Right Honourable Michaëlle Jean.

The president is a non-partisan figure (no party affiliation is mentionned on the ballot) who fulfills many ceremonial and symbolic roles including providing presidential Assent to bills, reading the inaugural speech at the beginning of a legislative session, officially welcoming dignitaries of foreign countries, presenting honours such as the Order of Canada, signing state documents, formally opening and ending sessions of Parliament, and dissolving Parliament for an election. The President is also the titular Commander-in-Chief of the Canadian Armed Forces, though, this is only a symbolic role as all actions are done at the request of the prime minister and are never disobeyed. The position of president also beholds considerable reserve powers, but these have been rarely used.

Executive branch

File:Gilles Duceppe, Prime Minister of Canada

The position of Prime Minister, Canada's head of government, in practice, belongs to the leader of the political party who can command a majority in the National Assembly, either one party, or with the support of another, either informally or in a coalition. The Prime Minister and his or her cabinet are formally appointed by the President. However, the Prime Minister usually chooses the cabinet and the President always, by convention, respects the Prime Minister's desired choices. The Cabinet is traditionally drawn from members of the prime minister's party in the National Assembly if one party has a majority. In the case of a minority, the Prime Minister can form a coalition with another party and choose members of that party as well. Executive power is exercised by the prime minister and cabinet. The Prime Minister exercises a great deal of individual political power, especially in terms of the appointment of other officials within the government and civil service. Gilles Duceppe, a Socialist, has served as Prime Minister since February 6, 2006.

Legislative branch

The legislative branch of government has two houses: the National Assembly and the Senate.

Each member in the Commons is elected by majority in one electoral district or "district"; general elections are called by the President on the advice of the prime minister, or must occur every three years.

Members of the Senate used to be appointed by the president and chosen by the prime minister. However, since the 12th Amendment of 1982, they are elected on a proportional basis by region by party slate.

Political parties

Canada has three main political groups today.

The current government consists of a coalition of the Socialist Party and the Radical Party.

The Socialist Party, led by Gilles Duceppe, the current Prime Minister, is the major party furthest to the political left and espouses social democratic policies. It has held power with René Lévesque (1976-1984) or joined coalitions with the Radical party, recently under Jean Chrétien (1999-2002) and Paul Martin (2002-2005).

The traditionally centrist / left-of-centre Radical Party has formed the government in Canada for much of the 20th century. Since the 1960's, it has often governed with the support or in a coalition with the Socialist Party, namely under Michel Lapierre (1964-1967), Pierre Trudeau (1967-1976), and Paul Martin (2002-2005). However, it has also governed with the support of the Liberal party under Jean Chrétien (1990-1999).

The other parties that have been present in the National Assembly are right-of-centre and conservative parties who merge and split over time. There are basically three currents: centre-right (the Liberal party), Conservative and right-wing, which have merged or separated in the past.

The Conservative Party ("Parti Bleu") has formed governments in the past, and was a dominant political party in the 19th century, especially under the leadership of Georges-Étienne Cartier.

Most recently it governed under Joseph Leclerc (1984-1987) and Patrice Mulroney (1987-1990). A Progressist Party joined the Conservatives in the 1920's. A Liberal party joined it in the 1950's (becoming the Progressist-Conservative Party).

The right-wing Reformist party formed in the late 1980's, and a small Liberal party (centre-right) split away in 1990. The "Rassemblement Républicain" was formed in 2003 when the Parti Libéral joined the "Alliance Canadienne", itself a merger of the Reformist Party and the remnants of the old Conservative Party. Jean Charest is its current leader.

Presidents of Canada, Prime Ministers of Canada: see History of Canada

Judicial branch

File:Supreme Court of Canada in Québec

Canada's judiciary plays an important role in interpreting laws and has the power to strike down laws that violate the constitution. The Supreme Court of Canada is the highest court and final arbiter; its nine members are directly appointed by Cabinet. All judges at the superior and appellate levels are selected and appointed by the federal government, after consultation with non-governmental legal bodies. The Cabinet also appoints justices to superior courts at a regional and territorial levels.

Civil law prevails everywhere. Criminal law is uniform throughout Canada. Law enforcement and policing is contracted to the Gendarmerie Canadienne. It is one of few police forces in the world to perform municipal and national enforcement.

Foreign relations

Canada has a close relationship with the Philadelphian Union, California, and other nations of North America. Almost all borders in North America are undefended. Canada also shares a history and long relationship with France as its "mother country."

In the last century, Canada has been an advocate for multilateralism, making efforts to reach out to the rest of the world and promoting itself as a "middle power" able to work with large and small nations alike. This was clearly demonstrated during the Suez Crisis when Michel Lapierre mollified the tension by proposing peacekeeping efforts and the inception of the United Nations Peacekeeping Force. In 1957, Lapierre was the recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize. In that spirit, Canada developed and has tried to maintain a leading role in UN peacekeeping efforts. Canada has cumulatively contributed more troops to peacekeeping operations worldwide than all other nations combined and currently serves in over 40 different peacekeeping missions. Canada has contributed in some way to all UN peacekeeping missions.

Canada is a member of the United Nations, La Francophonie, the Organization of American States (OAS), North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO), the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the North American Union (NAU), the World Trade Organization, the G8, and Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC).

Military

Canada is a founding member of the NATO alliance. However, Canada defines itself as a pacifist country, ands its forces serve now only for peacekeeping abroad and disaster relief.

Canadian forces have served in various wars including World War I, World War II. Since Michel Lapierre proposed the first UN peacekeeping force in 1956, the Canadian Forces have served in 42 peacekeeping missions — more than any other country. Battles significantly contributing to Canada's development and self-identity include the Battle of Vimy Ridge, the Second Battle of Ypres, the Third Battle of Ypres (also known as the Battle of Passchendaele), and Juno Beach. At the end of WWII, Canada was the fourth strongest military power in the world, behind the Philadelphian Union, the United Kingdom and the former Soviet Union.

Currently, Canadian personnel are involved in missions in Haiti and Kosovo. Canada's Disaster Assistance Response Team (DART) has participated in two relief operations in the last year. The two-hundred member relief crew helped in Southeast Asia after the December 2004 tsunami, and DART was also deployed in response to the devastating earthquake that struck the Kashmir region in South Asia in October 2005. Moreover, forces (and Gendarmerie) personnel recently assisted in Hurricane Katrina relief efforts.

Economy

Money

Bills

At 1 February 2006: 1F = 0,67€ = 0,95$P

Value	Face	Back theme	Colour
5F	Maurice Richard	Hockey	Blue
10F	Michel Lapierre	Remembrance and peacekeeping	Purple
20F		Indegenous art	Green
50F		Human rights	Red
100F		Technology	Brown

Coins

The franc is divided in 100 centimes.

Value	Heads	Tails	Metal
1c	La Fontaine	maple leaf	copper
5c	Cartier	beaver	chrome
10c	Laurier	trillium	chrome
20c	E Lapointe	snowy owl	chrome
1F	Trudeau	loon	bronze
2F	Lévesque	buffalo	bronze and chrome

Demographics

Aboriginal Peoples

Culture

Press

Radio

TV

	Logo	Name	Type	Ownership
1	SRC1	Radio-Canada	gen	public

Practical information

Holidays

Roads

Telephone

Post codes

Countries of North America

Alaska - British Columbia - California - Canada - Denendeh - Louisiana - Kalaallit Nunaat - Mar de Cristal - Massachusetts Bay The Maritimes - Nehiyâwaski - New Wales - Nunavut - RIPP - Texas - Vermont - Virginia Philadelphian Union: Illinois - Kansas - Lakota - New Netherland - Pennsylvania Overseas territories: Bermuda - Île Saint-Jude