From Jsarmi

These two areas of research run in parallel (show it in literature mapping) and have provided very closely related models. Surprising because the most common model of problem-solving is the "information-processing" model.

Contents 1 Objects of Study 2 Models 2.1 Problem-solving Models 2.1.1 Classic Problem-solving Cycle 2.1.2 Problem-solving as Information Processing 2.1.3 Four stage model of Insight 2.1.4 3-part model of Insight 3 Intersections 4 Open questions

Objects of Study

What is information behavior? What are information problem solving (IPS) tasks ? The archetypical information behavior is an information question or a case of decision making (e.g what printer to buy) What is problem solving? The stereotypical problem is a puzzle (e.g. the nine-dots problem)

Defintions by Wilson: http://inform.nu/Articles/Vol3/v3n2p49-56.pdf (This paper provides a history and overview of the field of human information behavior, including recent advances in the field and multidisciplinary perspectives.)

Models

Different models have been proposed to describe both information behavior and human problem solving activity. here we review the most developed and used of these models and reflect on their similarities and differences.

==Information Behavior Models In information science: Nice review in http://informationr.net/ir/9-1/paper164.html Also http://ship.nime.ac.jp/~miwamaki/dissertation02.htm Some IPS task models have been developed for users’ self-searching processes (Kuhlthau, 1992; Eisenberg & Berkowitz, 1995; Marchionini, 1995), Information problem solving (IPS) is: 'the active search for and processing of information over a period of time, with specific goals or tasks to be accomplished, and not completely taken for granted.

Other terms such as “information-seeking” (Hert, 1996; Allen, 1996) and “information search” (Kuhlthau, 1992) are used to represent the same concept. 2.2.1.1 Information Problem Solving As a Process

The term IPS was originally coined by Eisenberg and Berkowitz (Eisenberg & Berkowitz, 1995) to present a model of an information-oriented problem-solving approach to library and information skills instruction called the “Big 6.” They proposed that IPS is a process consisting of six stages: (1) task definition; (2) information-seeking strategies; (3) location and access; (4) use of information, (5) synthesis, and (6) evaluation[1].

Similar models consisting of slightly different stages are proposed by several other researchers. For example, Kuhlthau (1985, 1988, 1992) proposes a six-stage model of the “information-seeking process (ISP)” based on a series of empirical studies of high-school and college students. Irving (1985) presents a nine-stage model of “information skills.” Striping and Pitts (1988) propose a 10-step model of a “thinking process” for library research. Eisenberg and Brown (1992) found an “overriding similarity” among these process models and advocates a “common process approach to library and information skills education” (p. 105). Problem-solving: Book review

Derwin's model:

Dervin developed the sense-making approach, which is implemented in terms of four constituent elements - a situation
in time and space, which defines the context in which information problems arise; a gap, which identifies the difference
between the contextual situation and the desired situation (e.g. uncertainty); an outcome, that is, the consequences of the
sense-making process, and a bridge, that is, some means of closing the gap between situation and outcome (Dervin, 1983).

Problem-solving Models

Classic Problem-solving Cycle

(p.3) Psychologists have describe the problem-solving process in terms of a cycle (Bransford & Stein, 1993, Hayes, 1989, Sternberg, 1986). The cycle consists of the following stages:

1. Recognizing or identifying the existence of a problem
2. Defining the nature of the problem and representing it mentally
3. Developing a solution strategy
4. Organizing his or her knowledge about the problem
5. Allocating mental and physical resources for solving the problem
6. Monitoring progress toward the goal
7. Evaluating the solution to the problem

This cycle is descriptive, and does not imply that all problem solving proceeds sequentially through all stages in this order (p.4) Problem recognition/finding, defining the scope and goals, Representing information, Solving (following a solution path or working out a solution)

Problem-solving as Information Processing

Simon's own presentation of the history of PS: http://dieoff.org/page163.htm

The dual nature of problem solving -that it can be viewed as a sequence of internal mental events or as an actual series of movements through, or actions on, an external environment (or perhaps more profitably as an interaction between these two levels or realities)- does not usually receive much overt attention or analysis. This important part of Simon legacy has not been explored to the same extent as the separate levels have been. The focus has been on problem solving as cognition and representation to a much greater extent than on problem solving as action in the environment or on the interaction of the cognating organism with that external environment. (p.378)

Four stage model of Insight

Preparation, Incubation, Illumination, and Verification

3-part model of Insight

Selective encoding, Selective combination, Selective comparison

Factors, processes and stages, approach

Intersections

Finally, some degree of integration of different models is now taking place. Wilson (Wilson, 1999) has proposed a problemsolving model as a way of integrating the research in the field and has also proposed a global model of the field (Wilson, 1997). The former perceives information seeking, searching and use as associated with the different stages of a goaldirected problem-solving process, the stages being: problem recognition, problem definition, problem resolution, and (where needed) solution statement. He suggests that both Kuhlthau’s stages and Ellis’s characteristics can be related to this model.

Wilson, T. D. (1997). Information behaviour: an interdisciplinary perspective. Information Processing and Management, 33(4), 551- 572. Wilson, T. D. (1999). Models in information behaviour research. Journal of Documentation, 55(3), 249-270.

(from Human Information Behavior T.D. Wilson University of Sheffield)

Relevance? Clues? Interactivity? The term interactivity is defined as: The propensity to act in unison with external objects or other people (Marchionini, 1995).

Open questions